f AN ENGLISH ¥ 



i 

i 

! JAMES M.MILNE 

Y 



GRAMMAR 



Q& 



I 




SI IYER, BURDETT & COM PA 

1 lllliilil 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

"penii 

Chap, Copyright No. 

Shelf . M .5 ff. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



AN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 



JAMES Mr MILNE, Ph.D. 



"For my aim is not so much to say things that are new, as 
things that are true." — .1. C. Shairp 




VJ 



SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 

New York BOSTON Chicago 



13335 






Library of Congress 

Two Copies Received 
JUL 2 1900 

CopyrigM adry 

SECOND COPY. 



ORDER DIVISION, 

JUL 12 1900 



Copyright, jyiWJ, 
By SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY. 



. 



PREFACE. 

It has been assumed in the preparation of this text- 
book on English Grammar that it is for the use of 
those who can speak and read the English language ; 
hence much usually found in books on English Grammar 
has been omitted. 

It has been the purpose of the author, — 

I. To present a work purely grammatical, both 
in method and in facts emphasized. 

II. To give emphasis to language study through 
the wealth and variety of illustrations used in the 
development and elucidation of grammatical facts. 

III. To present English Grammar in such a 
way that only a minimum of it will have to be 
mil earned in studying the grammar of any other 
language. 

IV. So to present the method that the maxi- 
mum of strength will be reached through the 
minimum of facts learned. 

V. To use illustrative sentences of such value 
in giving pleasure and in stimulating thought that 
the pupils will be led into a love for grammar and 
thence into a love of' literature. 

In short, the author has regarded grammar as look- 
ing toward both logic and literature, — as a process 
of intellectual discipline and a means of intellectual 
culture. 

iii 



iv PREFACE. 

The method of the book, by bringing the pupils face 
to face with numerous examples from literature, Leads 
them through a study of forms and relations to an 
understanding of how grammatical statements are for- 
mulated and applied. 

The aim of the book is to emphasize the practical 
rather than the theoretical side of grammar; to place 
the emphasis on the process of reaching conclusions 
rather than in memorizing them ; to magnify the spirit 
of power rather than the spirit of acquisition. 

Great care has been exercised in selecting sentences 
that should be at once apposite for illustration, rich in 
thought, and healthful in sentiment. It is. perhaps, 
not a vain hope that some of these literary gems may 
prove potent factors in quickening and refining the 
literary taste of pupils and in giving to their thoughts 
rich coloring, thus awakening a greater interest in 
the treasures of literature and an eager craving for 
them. 

The author has attempted to rob grammar of some- 
thing of its mystery, and to give to the study of it 
something of freshness, interest, and pleasure. The 
plan of the book follows the highways rather than 
the byways of grammar, but the view of the subject 
has been constantly in the direction of understanding 
and mastering the fundamental principles and. essential 
practical facts. 

No attempt has been made to present the work in a 
granulated or diluted form, but an earnest effort has 
been made to have it clear and understandable, giving 
at all times needed help to those who try to help 
themselves. 

Some parts of the book may seem at first glance 



PREFACE. V 

too difficult for the pupils, but such portions must be 
viewed in the light of the strength acquired by them 
in the complete mastery of the work contained in the 
preceding pages. In the discussion of potential verb 
phrases, for example, the work may seem over-difficult, 
yet it has stood the test of the class-room, and has 
there won success and commendation. Many former 
pupils of the author certify to the easy grasp of the 
subject, and the practical strength acquired in the 
application of the uses of these potential verb phrases 
to literature. 

The arrangement of the subject-matter of the book 
is based on the natural order of presentation, — that 
the pupil should not be encumbered with technicalities 
before he has use for them ; that the same subject must 
be noted in different relations and observed by repeated 
views before it can be thoroughly grasped; and that 
not only must a subject be mastered in parts, but each 
part must be understood in its relation to the whole. 

The author's experience and observation in the class- 
room have led him to omit the subject of false syntax 
from this A\ r ork, on the ground that if that subject 
should receive consideration anywhere, it should be in 
the rhetoric and not in the grammar class. 

Parsing and diagramming, which have come some- 
what into disrepute through abuse or misapprehen- 
sion of their province and use, have been given due 
consideration as formulas of investigation ait J aiurfysis 
expression. 

Part I. is introductory in its nature, and must be 
thoroughly mastered before any work in Part II. is 
undertaken. In fact, a complete ami accurate under- 
standing of the parts of the book preceding any subject 



vi PREFACE. 

is the condition on which rests the easy mastery of that 
subject. 

Carrying out the suggestions of the "Committee of 
Fifteen" and other scholarly educators lively con- 
sulted, the author has added as appendices chapters 
on Word Building, History of English Language, and 
Prosody. 

The leading works on English and general grammar, 
published in Germany, England, and America, have 
been freely consulted, and to them the author freely 
acknowledges his indebtedness. 

He also wishes to express his appreciation of the 
generous services rendered by the friends who looked 
over his preliminary manuscript and gave him the bene- 
fit of their valuable suggestions. He is indebted in a 
marked degree to Dr. E. J. Peck for many valuable 
suggestions, especially on the subjects of Prepositions 
and Relatives. 



CONTENTS 



Introductory Chapter 



PAGE 
1 



PART I 

The Unit Sentence 
Forms of Sentences . 
Subject and Predicate 
Parts of Speech 
Summary . 
The Interjection 

The Expanded Sentence 

Tails of Speech determined by Use in Sentence 
Groups of Words used as Parts of Speech 
Sentences according to Rank .... 
Sentences according to Composition 
Analysis . 



Summary . 

Outline Classification 



PART II 

THE MODIFICATIONS AND RELATIONS OF PARTS 

OF SPEECH 

Nouns 

Classes 59 

Gender .......... 68 

vii 



CONTENTS 



Number 

Case .... 

Inflection and Declension 

Construction and Parsing 

.Summary . 

Outline Classification 



70 
77 
95 
m; 
98 

101 



Pronouns 

Personal and Neuter 

Demonstrative . 

Indefinite . 

Interrogative 

Relative 

Summary . 

Outline Classification 



103 
115 

117 
125 
ISO 

ltl 
lb; 



Adjectives 

Classes 148 

Comparison 150 

Summary 165 

Outline Classification 107 

Verbs 

Classes 168 

Voice 17l' 

Mode 17.") 

Tense \ .180 

Person 187 

Verbals 188 

Conjugation 1!>:'> 

Potential Verb Phrases 211 

Defective Verbs 282 

Summary 286 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

Outline Classification 238 

Parsing 240 

Adverbs 

Classes 243 

Comparison 248 

Summary 251 

Outline Classification 252 

Prepositions 

Classes 255 

Parsing Summary 257 

Summary 200 

Outline Classification 260 

Conjunctions 

Classes 201 

Parsing Summary , 267 

Summary 208 

Outline Classification 270 

In n kimki itions 271 

Words with Various Uses 27:5 

PART III 

SENTENCE STRUCTURE, ANAL FSIS 

Sentence Forms 

Subject 281 

Predicate 282 

Objecl 283 



CONTENTS 



Subject Modifiers 
Object Modifiers 
Predicate Modifiers 



Clauses 
Noun 
Adjective 



Adverbial . 
DsES OF Infinitives 
OSES of Participles . 
Connecting Elements . 
Independent Elements 



paoi 

28 1 
285 
285 



28G 
287 
288 



. 289 

. 290 

. 292 

. 292 



PART IV 



Syntax 



296 



PART V 



Sentences fob Analysis 



APPENDICES 

T. Historical Sketch «>f the English Lanoi \<-\ . -'117 

II. Word Formation 827 

III. Prosody 348 

IV. Notes fob Teachers 369 



Index 



367 



A knowledge of English Grammar is essential to a 
good education. — William Wheivell. 

As Grammar was made after language, so it ought 
to be taught after it. — Herbert Spencer. 

Grammar must be learned through language, and not 
language through Grammar. — Johann Gr. von Herder. 

No law of a grammarian is absolute, for it may be 
repealed when brought before the court of last resort, 
made up of our best speakers and approved authors. — 
George Campbell ("Philosophy of Rhetoric"). 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

1. Language, in its most comprehensive sense, Language. 
includes all ways and means of communicating 
thought. 

Language is from the Latin lingua — tongue, or 
speech. 

To him who in the love of Nature holds communion 
with her visible forms, she speaks a various language. 

— William (fallen Bryant. 

2. Language in a more restricted sense comprises 
the ways and means of communicating thought 
through the medium of articulate sounds, letters, 
or characters. 

3. Language made up of articulate sounds is Spoken 
spoken language. Language. 

4. Language made up of letters and characters Written 
is written language. Language. 

Language is the picture and the counterpart of thought. 

— Mark Hopkins. 

l 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English 5. The language of England, whether used in 

Language. England or elsewhere in the world, is called the 
English Language. 

Grammar. 6. An investigation of the facts, processes, and 
usages of a language is called Grammar. 

Grammaris from the Greek gramma — letter, or word. 

The whole fabric of Grammar rests upon the classifying 
of words according to their functions in the sentence. 

— Alexander Bain. 

Grammar is the logic of speech, even as logic is the 
grammar of reason. — Richard C. Trench. 

7. While every kind of grammar includes to 
some extent an inquiry into the facts, processes, 
and usages of language, there are particular kinds 
of grammar that direct especial attention to these 
different fields of inquiry. 

Oompara- 8. Comparative Grammar is an inquiry into the 

tive comparative forms of words and constructions in 

different languages, to find common likenesses and 

common origin, and thus places emphasis on the 

facts of language. 

Historical 9. Historical Grammar is an inquiry into the ori- 
rammar. ^-^ m0( j es f g row th, and development of a lan- 
guage, and so emphasizes the processes of language. 

Descriptive 10. Descriptive Grammar is an inquiry into the 
rammar. f ormg an( | constructions used in a language and a 
classification of the accepted usages. 



INTRODUCTORY. 3 

11. A Grammar of the English language is an English 
English Grammar. Grammar. 

12. The province of an English Grammar of to- Province of 
day is to treat present accepted usages of the Eng- English 
lish language. Its function is not so much to tell 

how to use the English language, as how it is used 
by good writers and speakers. 

Every tongue whatever is founded on use or custom, 
whose arbitrary sway words and the forms of language 
must obey. — George Campbell. 

Use can almost change the stamp of Nature. 

— Shakespeare. 

13. The learning of a language is largely a Learning 
process of imitation, reaching toward perfection of a 
through repeated efforts and corrections. Gram- s s ' 
mar gives rules for use in such corrections. 

14. Grammar does not create rules, but simply u, u ies of 
formulates accepted usages as they are found, and Grammar, 
records and arranges them into rules. 

Science deals exclusively with things as they are in 
themselves. — John RusTdn. 

A principle in science is a rule in art. — John Playfair. 

15. Rules in English Grammar must needs be Rules 
changed from time to time to embody the changing Change, 
usages of the English language. 

A language grows, and is not made. 

— James Russell Lowell 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

16. The unit of language is the complete 
thought, and its elements are words. 

Logic is the anatomy of thought. — John Locke. 

Grammar is the anatomy of speech. 

The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. 

— John Stuart Mill. 



Paet I. 

THE SENTENCE. 



I. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 1 

17. A group of words used to express a com- The 
plete thought is a sentence. Sentence. 

Sentence is from the Latin sententia — a thought. 

18. The sentence is the grammatical unit. 

A. FOEMS OF SENTENCES. 

19. Sentences have different forms used hi the 
expression of thought. 

Note the form of the following sentences : — 

1. Kind words are the music of the world. — Faber. 

2. Deeds survive the doers. — Mann. 

Note that the preceding sentences are used in telling 
or stating something. 

20. A sentence in the form of a statement is a Declarative 
declarative sentence. Sentence. 

Declarative is from the Latin declarativus — telling. 

1 Sue Notes t'ur Teachers, Appendix IV. 
5 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note the form of the following sentences : — 

1. Rose, what is become of thy delicate hue ? 
And where is the violet's beautiful blue'.' — Byrom. 

2. Is there any one who does not need patience ? — ( hross. 

Note that the foregoing sentences are used in asking 
questions. 

Interroga- 21. A sentence in the form of a question is an 
interrogative sentence. 

Interrogative is from the Latin interrogativw — ask- 
ing, or questioning. 



tive 
Sentence 



1. Look into thy heart, and write. — Sidney. 

2. Spare the poet for his subject's sake. — Cotoper. 

3. Breathe soft, ye winds ; ye waves, in silence sleep. 

— Oaf. 
Note that the preceding sentences are used in com- 
manding, requesting, and entreating. 

Imperative 22 - A sentence in the form of a com m and. re- 
Sentence, quest, or entreaty is an imperative sentence. 

Imperative is from the Latin imperativuB — ordering, 
or commanding. 

Note that the following sentences are inform declar- 
ative (1), interrogative (2), and imperative ( ;, >). but are 
also used to express feeling or emotion. Such sen- 
tences are said to be exclamatory in force. 

1. Life hath quicksands, life hath snares! — Longfellow. 

2. Was ever poet so trusted lie tore ! — Gay. 

3. Oh, be my friend, and teach me to be thine] 

— End rsnn. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 7 

23. Declarative, interrogative, or imperative sen- Exclamatory 
tences used to express force of emotion are exclam- Sentence ' 
atory sentences. 

Exclamatory is from the Latin exclamatus — a crying 
out. 

1. Declarative It, p f Exclamatory Declarative 

1 Force of 



2. Interrogative Emot . ons 
3 : Imperative J 



Exclamatory Interrogative. 
Exclamatory Imperative. 



Name the different forms of the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Schoolhonses are the republican line of fortifications. 

— Mann. 

2. Make me a child again just for to-night ! — Allen. 

3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. — Brooks. 

4. But when shall spring visit the moldering urn ! 
Oh, when shall it dawn on the night of the grave ! 

— Beattie. 

5. Why is a wish far dearer than a crown ? — Young. 

6. Polly ! Polly ! The cows are in the corn ! — Gilder. 

7. Humor is the mistress of tears. — Thackeray. 

8. What is life but the choice of that good which con- 
tains the least evil ! — Haydon. 

9. The early morn has gold in its month. — Franklin. 

10. Do you think a woman's silence can be natural ? 

— Farquhar. 

11. Man, know thyself ! All wisdom centers there ! 

— You hi/. 

12. A strenuous soul hates cheap successes. — Emerson. 

13. Ask me questions concerning tomorrow, Congreve. 

14. Rule by patience, Laughing Water! — Longfellow. 

15. How can you make a foul perceive that he is a 
fuul ? — Thackeray. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



B. SUBJECT AM) PREDICATE. 

Every sentence may be divided into two parts as 
follows : — 

I. Tliat of which somothinn is said. 
II. That ivhich is said of it. 



1. 


A happy heart 


makes a happy day. 


2. 


True valor 


lies between cowardice an 
rashness. 


3. 


Tenderness 


is the repose of passion. 


4. 


Evil tongues 


never want a whet. 


5. 


Length of saying 


makes weariness of hearing. 


6. 


To help one another 


is a rare privilege. 


7. 


Thinking thoughts 


is molding life. 



Subject. 24. The part of the sentence used to represent 
that of which something is said is the subject. 

Subject is from the Latin subjection — subject, or 
foundation. 

Predicate. 25. The part of the sentence used to represent 
that which is said of the subject is the predicate. 

Predicate is from the Latin praedieatum — telling, 
or proclaiming. 

Name the subject and predicate in the following 
declarative sentences : — 

1. Childhood has no forebodings. — Eliot. 

2. Home is the grandest of all institutions. — Spurgeon. 

3. To bear is to conquer our fate. — ( 'ampbeU. 

4. The smallest speck is seen on snow. — (in;/. 

5. A loving heart is the truest wisdom. — Dickens. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 9 

6. A babe in the house is a wellspring of pleasure. 

— Tapper. 

7. Biography is the only true history. — Oarlyle. 

8. A perfect pond lily is the most satisfactory of 
flowers. — Hawthorne. 

9. The elements of poetry lie in natural objects. 

— Bryant. 

10. To fail at all is to fail utterly. — Lowell. 

11. The true greatness and the true happiness of a 
country consist in wisdom. — Giles. 

Change the following interrogative sentences, as 
near as may be, to the declarative form or order, and 
tell the subject and predicate in each sentence : — 

1. How many ships did Columbus have on his voyage 
of discovery ? l 

2. Where did the pilgrims first land in America ? 

3. How much land and how much money did Congress 
vote La Fayette ? 

4. AVhen did the first steamship cross the Atlantic 
Ocean ? 

5. Who are regarded as the three greatest statesmen of 
the nineteenth century ? 

6. Did Cyrus Field lay the first Atlantic cable ? 

7. Are eight of the United States named from the 
names of their chief rivers ? 

8. Was Elias Howe the inventor of the sewing machine ? 

9. Did Betsy Ross make the first American flag ? 
10. Which is the highest monument in America ? 

In imperative sentences the subject is you, >/e, or 
thou, and is generally omitted and has to be supplied. 

1 Columbus had how many ships on his voyage of discover] P 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Lift (you or ye) yourselves higher day by day. 

2. Help (thou) thyself in all things. 

3. Keverence (thou, you or ye) age. 

Tell the subject and the predicate of the following 
imperative sentences : — 

1. Be slow in choosing a friend. 

2. Keep yourselves pure in heart. 

3. Defend me from my friends. 

4. Laugh yourselves into good humor. 

5. Neglect not the fleeting opportunity. 

6. Enjoy all the pleasures of the day. 

7. Acquit yourselves like men. 

8. Glory in thy privileges. 

9. Avoid making yourselves the subject of conversation. 
10. Give reverence to age. 

Construct or select five declarative, five interroga- 
tive, and five imperative sentences in addition to those 
given, and indicate the subject and predicate of each. 

Logical 26. A sentence regarded as a unit of thought is 
a logical sentence and, as lias been noted, consists 
of two parts, the subject and the predicate. 

Gram- 27. A sentence regarded as a unit of speech is ;i 

Sentence g rammat i cal sentence, and consists of all the differ- 
ent parts (words) used to form the sentence. 

To illustrate by the following sentence : — 

Each day has its duties. 

The foregoing sentence regarded as a unit of thought 
consists of two parts, viz. : — 

Kitliject + Predicate 

Bach day + has its duties 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 11 

The same sentence regarded as a unit of speech con- 
sists of five parts, viz. : — 

Each + day + has + its + duties. 

C. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

28. The parts of a grammatical sentence are 
called parts of speech. 

Select the part of speech in each of the following 1 
sentences that is the name of something : — 



1. 


Stars shine. 


9. 


Acting instructs. 


2. 


Plants breathe. 


10. 


Watching wearies. 


3. 


Flowers blossom. 


11. 


Learning refines. 


4. 


Hornets sting. 


12. 


Hypocrisy disgusts. 


5. 


Slugs crawl. 


13. 


America triumphs. 


6. 


Venice charms. 


14. 


Retribution follows. 


7. 


Iliches vanish. 


15. 


Victoria reigns. 



8. Simplicity attracts. 1(3. Homer lives. 

29. The part of speech that is the name of some Noun, 
person, place, or thing is called a noun. 

Noun is from the Latin nomen — a name. 

Note that the remaining word in each of the fore- 
going sentences is used in stating or asserting something 
about some object. 

30. The part of speech used to state or assert Verb, 
something about some person, place, or thing is a 

verb. 

Verb is from the Latin verbum — a word. 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



31. The verb is the word of the sentence, and is 
the only part of speech that can never be left out 
of a sentence. 



Note that in each of the foregoing sentences the sub- 
ject is a noun, and the predicate is a verb. 

Use different nouns as subjects of the following 
verbs : — 



1. 


cry. 


2. 


shine. 


3. 


roar. 


4. 


dawns. 


5. 


sleeps. 


6. 


swims. 


7. 


depart. 


8. 


returns. 


9. 


decay. 


10. 


vote. 


Use different verl 


nouns : - 




1. 


Washington 


2. 


Vice . 


3. 


Birds . 


4. 


Lightning — 


5. 


Lincoln 


6. 


Flowers 


7. 


Martha . 


8. 


Flocks . 


9. 


Running 


10. 


Hudson 



11. 


cackle. 


12. 


vanish. 


13. 


mew. 


14. 


thrive. 


15. 


sews. 


10. 


develop. 


17. 


enlarge. 


18. 


twinkle. 


19. 


deceives. 


20. 


laughs. 



Verb 
Phrase. 



as predicates of the following 

— . 11. Henry . 

12. Groaning . 

13. Day . 

14. Pain . 

15. Virtue . 

16. Promises . 

17. Sweetness . 

18. Friends . 

19. Goodness . 

20. Light . 

32. Sometimes two or more verbs arc taken 
together and form what is called a verb phrase. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 13 

Use different nouns as subjects of the following verb 
phrases : — 



1. 


is walking. 


7. has died 


2. 


are dreaming 


8. were surprised. 


2. 


can come. 


9. is known. 


4. 


will depart. 


10. shall investigate. 


5. 


are hated. 


11. have deserted. 


G. 


should have. 


12. might assert. 




13. 


could have left. 




14. 


have been seen. 




15. 


must have returned. 




16. 


■ had been forgiven. 




17. 


will have been tried. 




18. 


would have been stopped. 




19. 


may have been interested. 




20. 


might have been lost. 



33. Parts of verb phrases are frequently sepa- 
rated from one another by other parts of speech, 
as : — 

1. Shall not a man have his spring as well as plants ? 

— Tlioreau. 

2. We can never willingly offend where we sincerely 
love. — Hill. 

Name the nouns, simple verhs, and verb phrases in the 
following sentences : — 

1. Success never needs an excuse. — Bulwer-I/ytton. 

2. The soul never grows old. — Longfellow. 

3. Affection, like melancholy, magnifies trifles. — Hunt. 

4. I dreamed that Greece might still be live. — Byron. 

5. Ignorance gives a large range of probabilities. 

—Eliot. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. God sends experience to paint men's portraits. 

— Beecher. 

7. The plea of ignorance will never take away our 
responsibilities. — Buskin. 

8. Proper words in proper places make the true defini- 
tion of style. — Sivift. 

9. One may live as a conqueror, a king, or a magistrate, 
but he must die as a man. — Webster. 

10. Unless a man works he cannot find out what he is 
able to do. — Hamerton. 

11. All great discoveries are made by men whose feelings 
run ahead of their thinkings. — Parkhurst. 

12. If we could read the secret history of our enemies, 
we should find in each man's life sorrow and suffering 
enough to disarm all hostility. — Longfellow. 

13. We have not read an author till we have seen his 
object, whatever it may be, as he saw it. — Carlyle. 

Note that the verb in each of the following sentences 
has a noun to complete the idea of the action it is used 
to assert. 

1. Labor disgraces no man. — Grant. 

2. A mask of gold hides all deformities. — Dickens. 

3. Home interprets heaven. — Parkhurst. 

Object of 34. A noun used to complete the idea of the 
Verbi action that the verb is used to assert is called the 
object of the verb. 

Transitive 35. A verb that requires an object to complete 
Verb - the idea of the action which it is used to assert is 
called a transitive verb. 

Name the transitive verbs and objects in the follow- 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 15 

1. A great library contains the diary of the human race. 

— Dawson. 

2. True friends have no solitary joy or sorrow. — CJianning. 

3. Wear the old coat and buy the new book. — Phelps. 

4. Strong reasons make strong actions. — Shakespeare. 

5. A gentleman makes no noise. — Emerson. 

Note that the verbs in the following sentences do 
not require objects to complete the idea of the action 
which they are used to assert. 

1. The imagination never dies. — Stedman. 

2. Valor consists in the power of self-recovery. — Emerson. 

3. Feeling comes before reflection. — Haweis. 

36. A verb that does not require an object to Intransitive 
complete the idea of the action which it is used to Verbi 
assert is called an intransitive verb. 

Name the transitive and intransitive verbs in the 
following sentences : — 

1. Continual dropping wears away stones. — Franklin. 

2. Beauty lives with kindness. — Shakespeare. 

3. The sacred influence of light appears. — Milton. 

4. History casts its shadow far into the land of song. 

— Lota/fellow. 

5. Ancient travelers guessed ; modern travelers measure. 

— Johnson. 
G. The man that makes a character makes foes. — Young. 

7. Even success needs its consolation. — Eliot. 

8. God blesses want with large sympathies. — Lowell. 

9. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. — Tennyson. 

Note that the predicate in each of the following 

sentences consists of a verb and a noun. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note that the noun in the predicate is a word used 
to explain something about the subject. 

1. The dew of compassion is a tear. — Byron. 

2. Troubles are God's rains in the world. — Beecher. 

3. Penetration seems a kind of inspiration. — Greuoille. 

Copulative 37. A verb used to unite the subject with a part 
Verb. f sp eec h which, while explanatory of the subject, 
is used to help form the predicate, is called a 
copulative verb. 

Copulative is from the Latin cop ulativus — a coupling 
or binding together. 

The more common copulative verbs are be {am, arc, 
is, was, were), look, seem, appear, and become. 

Predicate 38. A noun used to help form the predicate is 
■ Noun ' called a predicate noun. 

Name the copulative verbs and predicate nouns in 
the following sentences: — 

1. Words are men's daughters, but God's sons are things. 

— Johnson. 

2. Faith is a higher faculty than reason. — Bailey. 

3. Be a philosopher; but amidst all your philosophy. 1><> 
still a man. — Hume. 

4. No craven-hearted man was ever fit to be a citizen. 

— Z>\ eckt r. 

5. Measures, not men, have always been my mark. 

— Goldsmith. 

6. A book is a garden. A book is an orchard. A book 
is a storehouse. A book is a party. It is company by the 
way; it is a counselor; it is a multitude of counselors 

— B( i '-It, r. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 17 

7. The hearts of men are their books ; events are their 
tutors ; great actions are their eloquence. — Macaulay. 

8. They become the parasites and slaves of the great. 

— Id. 

9. Labor is the law of happiness. — Stevens. 

Note that the subjects in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing sentences are verbs used as nouns. 
Walking is healthful exercise. 
To walk is healthful exercise. 
j Dying is gain. 
( To die is gain. 
( Sailing requires skill. 
(To sail requires skill. 
| Sailing a boat requires skill. 
(To sail a boat requires skill. 

39. That form of the verb which is used as a 
noun is called an infinitive. 

40. The infinitive form in the first sentence in 
each of the foregoing groups may be called the 
infinitive in ing. 

41. The infinitive form in the last sentence in 
each of the foregoing groups may be called the 
simple infinitive with to. 

Name and specify the kind of infinitives in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

1. To choose time is to save time. — Bacon. 

2. Living is dreaming. — Wallace. 

3. Nature seems to have been created to inspire. — King. 

4. Doing good is the only certainly happy action of a 
man's life. — Sidney. 

o. If you mean to profit, learn to praise — Churchill. 



Infinitive, 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Name the nouns and verbs in the following sen- 
tences, and tell the subject, object, and predicate nouns, 

and the transitive, intransitive, and copulative verbs and 
infinitives. 

1. Morality is the object of government. — Emerson, 

2. Physical prowess has had its clay, and the age of 
reason has come. — Grady. 

3. Riches take wings, comforts vanish, hope withers 
away, but love stays with ns. — Wallace. 

4. Talking is like playing on the harp ; there is as much 
in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibrations, 
as in twanging them to bring out their music. — Holmes. 

5. In the journey of the years, the autumn is Venice, 
spring is Naples, and the majestic maturity of summer is 
Rome. — Curtis. 

(J. It is not work that kills men; it is worry. Work is 
healthy; you can hardly put more upon a man than he can 
bear. Worry is rust upon the blade. — Beecher. 

7. Life passes, riches fly away, popularity is fickle, the 
senses decay, the world changes, friends die. — Newman. 

8. The same energy which whirls the earth around the 
sun and crashes the heavens with thunderbolts, produces 
the lilies of the valley and the gentle dewdrops that keep 
them fair. — Hunt. 

9. Do you remember, in that disastrous siege in India, 
when the little Scotch girl raised her head from the pallet 
in the hospital, and said to the sickening hearts <>f the Eng- 
lish, "I hear the bagpipes; the Campbells arecoming!" 
and they said, "No, Jessie; it is delirium." And in an 
hour the pibroch burst upon their glad ears, and the banner 
of St. George floated over their heads. — Curtis. 

To what persons or things do the words he, she. t/i<//. 
and it refer in the following sentences? 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 19 

1. He discovered America in 1492 a.d. 

2. She was the last queen of Scotland. 

3. They crossed the ocean in the Mayflower. 

4. They were the two leading parties at the last national 
election. 

5. It was invented by Robert Fulton, and made its first 
trip on the Hudson River. 

Note that these words are used to refer to persons or 
things without naming them. 

42. The part of speech that is used as a refer- p ronouni 
ence word to represent some person or thing is 
called a pronoun. 

A noun and a pronoun may be used to designate the 
same person or thing ; the noun as the name of the 
person or thing, the pronoun as the reference word, 
i.e. the word used to refer to the person or thing. 

Pronoun is from the Latin pro nomine — instead of 
a noun. 

Observe the pronouns in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing sentences, and state to what person or thing 
each pronoun refers. 

1. A woman's lot is made for her by the love she ac- 
cepts. — Eliot. 

2. "We hand folks over to God's mercy, and show none 
ourselves. — Id. 

3. Mercy to him that shows it is the rule. — Dryden. 

4. I thank thee, dew, for teaching me that word. 

5. Make all you can, save all you can, give all you can. 

Wedey. 

6. We soil om- birthrighl whenever we sell our liberty 
for any price of gold or honor. — \\'/iij>j>l<>. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Let us be careful to distinguish modest} 7 , which is 
ever amiable, from reserve, which is only prudent . 

— Shenstone. 

8. I am always afraid of a fool, — one cannot be sure 
that he is not a knave as well. — Hazlitt. 

9. Mankind is always happy for having been happy ; 
so that if you make them happy now, you make them happy 
twenty years hence by memory of it. — Smith. 

10. The accusing spirit which flew up to heaven's chan- 
cery with the oath blushed as he gave it in, and the record- 
ing angel dropped a tear upon the word and blotted it out 
forever. — Sterne. 

Fill out the blanks in the following sentences with 
appropriate pronouns : — 

1. Men regarded with suspicion on account of his 

treachery. 

2. Citizens deprive of their rights by neglecting 

3. died that might live. 

4. gave my wages and also gave his 

blessing. 

5. shines with that brilliancy belongs to . 

6. struggle for reputation, strive for character. 

7. wept over joys were to be no more. 

8. saw do no man could endure. 

9. Joy in work is should strive for. 

10. is valuable is not enduring. 

11. is worth if has a use. 

12. are rich when want , not when 

have . 

13. reveal by our acts. 

14. are more known to by your hopes. 

15. may not get , but should get 

of . 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 21 

16. Perseverance is will conquer nearly all 

things. 

17. can afford to be weary, but cannot afford 

to be lazy. 

18. should be free men, should be slaves. 

43. Verbs, nouns, and pronouns are the chief 
parts of speech in the sentence. 

44. The subject or the object of a sentence is 
always a noun or a pronoun, or an equivalent 
expression. 

45. The predicate of a sentence must always 
have a verb expressed or implied. 

The remaining parts of speech are either modifying 
or connecting elements. 

1. Boats must keep near shore. 

2. Little boats must keep near shore. 

Regard the noun, boats, in both the foregoing sen- 
tences, as the name of the same objects. 

Note that little, the additional part of speech in sen- 
tence 2, is used to specify the size of the boats, and 
thus aids the noun, boats, in designating more definitely 
that for which it stands. 

In like manner explain ' awe-inspiring ' and ' happy ' 
in the following sentences : — 

1. Mountains are awe-inspiring. 2. All seemed happy. 

46. The part of speech that is used with a noun Adjective, 
or pronoun to designate more definitely that which 

the noun or pronoun is used to represent is called 
an adjective. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adjective is from the Latin adjectivus — joined to, and 
refers to the adjective as joined to a noun or pronoun. 

Note from the following groups of sentences that 
adjectives may be classified according to what they a re- 
used to specify. 

Note the adjectives in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences, and to what questions they answer : — 

What ? What kind ? 

1. Hasty climbs have sudden falls. 

2. Little pitchers have great ears. 

3. Knotty timbers require sharp wedges. 

4. March winds and April showers bring forth May 
flowers. 

5. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

6. Running horses do not need the spur. 

How many? How much? 

1. One eyewitness is better than ten hearsays. 

2. He killed two birds with one stone. 

3. Possession is nine points of the law. 

4. Little money brings little care. 

5. Many drops of water will sink a ship. 

. What or what one ? 

1. Yon moon tells of dry weather. 

2. Second thoughts are sometimes best. 

3. The coin most current is flattery. 

4. Lean not on a reed. 

Note that rolling and running in sentences 5 and <! 
of the first series are verbs used as adjectives. 

Participle. 47. The form of a verb that is used as an adjec- 
tive is called a participle. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 23 

Tell to which one of the foregoing groups the adjec- 
tives in full-faced type in the following sentences 
belong : — 

1. The moldering dust that you have made 

Is a dainty meal for him. — Dickens. 

2. The best teachers of humanity are the lives of great 
men. — Fowler. 

3. The fashion wears out more apparel than the man. 

— Shakespeare. 

4. Bad men will excuse their faults ; good men will 
leave them — Johnson. 

5. Every addition to true knowledge is an addition to 
human power. — Mann. 

6. You cannot forget, if you would, those golden kisses 
all over the cheeks of the meadow, queerly called dande- 
lions. — Beecher. 

7. The birds have ceased their songs, 

All save the blackbird, that from yon tall arch, — 
In adoration of the setting sira, 
Chants forth his evening hymn. — Moir. 

8. The creeping night stole up the hillsides softly. One by 
one the stars appeared, and the first lights twinkled in the 
windows of the inn. As the darkness came, the last idlers 
deserted the scpiare ; as the darkness came, the mighty silence 
of the forest above flowed in on the valley, and strangely 
and suddenly hushed the lonely little town — Collins. 

9. It was a day when the beauty of the earth makes 
itself felt like ravishing music that has no sound. The air, 
warm and full of summer fragrance, was of that ethereal, 
untinged clearness which spreads over all things the softness 
of velvet. The far-vaulted heavens, so bountiful of light, 
were an illimitable, weightless curtain of pale-blue velvet; 
the rolling clouds were of white velvet, the grass, the stems 
of bending wild floweiS, the drooping sprays of woodland 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB 



Substantive 
Adjective. 



Predicate 
Adjective. 



foliage, were so many forms of emerald velvet; the gnarled 
trunks of the trees were gray and brown velvet; the wings 
and breasts of birds, flitting hither and thither, were of gold 
and scarlet velvet; the butterflies were stemless, floating, 
velvet blossoms. — Allen. 

Note that the adjectives in full-faced type in the 
following sentences stand for the nouns with which 
they are used : — 

1. The good that is done is not lost. 

2. The great and the little have need of each other. 

3. The rich and ignorant are sheep with golden wool. 

4. Even the wicked hate vice in others. 

48. An adjective that is used for a noun is 
called a substantive adjective. 

Note that the adjectives in full-faced type in the 
following sentences are used with copulative verbs to 
form the predicates : — 

1. Mettle is dangerous in a blind horse. 

2. The abuse of riches is worse than the want of them. 

3. A man is not good or bad for one act. 

49. An adjective used with a copulative verb to 
form a predicate is called a predicate adjective. 

50. A predicate adjective may be used with a 
pronoun to designate mure definitely that to which 
the pronoun refers. 

Name the substantive and predicate adjectives in the 
following sentences : — 

1. The beautiful attracts the beautiful. — Hunt. 

2. The good is ahvay the road to what is true. 

— Hamerton. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 25 

3. Notoriety is short-lived ; fame is lasting. — Bancroft. 

4. The most useful is the greatest. — Parker. 

5. We are contented because we are happy, and not 
happy because we are contented. — Burke. 

6. The wisest and best are wiser and better for the 
friends they have. — Hitchcock. 

Fill out the blanks in the following sentences with 
appropriate adjectives : — 

1. wedding may be celebrated on 

anniversary of ceremony. 

2. Gladstone was called by admirers " 

man." 

3. boy is said to reach majority when he is 

years of age. 

4. Washington, president of United 

States, was born on day of February. 

5. nest of orioles was swinging from one of 

branches of tree. 

G. sinking of M aine in harbor of Havana 

was act of an coward. 

7. tomb of General Grant is in New York on 

bank of River. 

8. success that you will attain will be success 

of patience and word. 

9. day is a day that is used for a 

purpose. 

Note that the verb, learned, is used to assert the same 
action in both the following sentences. 

Note that quickly, the additional part of speech in 
sentence (2), is joined to the verb, learned, to designate 
more definitely that which the verb is used to express. 

1. He learned his lesson. 

2. He learned his lessons quickly. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adverb. 51. The part of speech that is used with a verb 
to designate more definitely that which the verb is 
used to express is called an adverb. 

52. Certain adverbs are sometimes joined with 
adjectives or other adverbs to designate more defi- 
nitely the limitations they are used to distinguish. 

Classes. Note the classes of adverbs suggested in the follow- 

ing sentences, and to what questions they are answers : 

A thin meadow is soon mowed. ) TI „ a 

- TJ lien? 
First creep, then walk. ) 

The witness is there. ) Tir , „ 

[ Where? 
Goodness is not seen everywhere. ) 

Fools sometimes give wise counsel. ) TT „ a 

, • -, ■-, • , How <>ffi')>? 

Fortune rarely brings good or evil singly. > 

Well begun is half done. ) r , „ 

1 ! T • 1 ! • f HOW? 

Slowly and sadly they laid him down. J 
Happiness is too good to keep. ") „- » - 

What's done we partly may compute. \ 

_ ,. , , „ ") To what exU nt is 

Death does not end all. 

„ ., asst rhon true 

Opportunity certamly meets every one. v 
11 J * J ). or untrue? 

The following groups of sentences contain adverbs 
belonging to the classes corresponding to the foregoing 

group letters ; name each adverb and tell with what 
part of speech it is used : — 

When? 

1. Brighter days are coming soon. 

2. The truth will then be known. 

3. The shadows will some tame vanish. 

4. The daisies are now dotting the meadow. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 27 

5. The sun is always shining. 

6. Lately the shops have been closed at six o'clock. 

7. The fountain of truth will never fail. 

Where ? 

1. Nowhere was light, and everywhere was darkness. 

2. The battle was fought yonder where the monument is. 

3. We looked overhead, and stars were visible. 

4. In the cataract below are hidden rocks. 

5. The ships sailed thence at daybreak. 

6. Fireflies here and there look like flashes of light. 

7. Messengers went hence with good news. 

8. The snow drifting hither and thither bewildered him. 

9. Nowhere has the fountain of youth been found. 
10. Opportunity meets us everywhere. 

How Often ? 

1. Thrice he refused the crown. 

2. Sometimes the days must be dismal and dark. 

3. One by one our duties come. 

4. The heart often becomes weary. 

5. The right thing to do is always the best thing to do. 

6. Expected troubles rarely 'come. 

7. Temptations are repeatedly testing us. 

8. The head should daily grow wiser. 

9. Hope is ever bright and fair. 

How ? 

1. Sailors eagerly scan the heavens for changing signs. 

2. The lazy boy goes reluctantly to school. 

3. He who does his best does well. 

■I. The news was enthusiastically received. 

5. Thus was the story told by grand Cat her. 

6. The train rushed rapidly through the darkness. 

7. Men move lazily upon the wharf. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. Our master was fondly regarded by all. 

9. The plans were promptly executed. 
10. The prize money was evenly divided. 

How Much ? 

1. The voters are largely responsible for civic vices. 

2. He was thoroughly aware of our attitude. 

3. Our tasks were nearly finished. 

4. The sun had almost set. 

5. Boys are too eager to be men. 

6. Age loves the sunshine more and more. 

7. Our ogre Avas only a tow-headed boy. 

8. The more he ate, the larger he grew. 

9. Grandmother is rather hard of hearing. 

10. The engineer was somewhat troubled by smoke. 

To What Extent is the Assertion True or Untrue f 

1. True friends are not suspicious of one another. 

2. The end must certainly be considered. 

3. You have seen him, yes, — and have told him every- 
thing ? 

4. Chance, perhaps, is not so blind as it is all-seeing. 

5. Our terms will undoubtedly be accepted. 

6. He was, indeed, a man of sterling worth. 

7. Their efforts will probably be successful. 

8. His rights, accordingly, were respected. 

9. Possibly we may be mistaken. 

10. Verily, they have received their reward. 

Name the adverbs in the following sentences, tell to 
what foregoing class eacli belongs, and with what word 
it is used : — 

1. There is always safety in valor. — Emerson. 

2. What we frankly give forever is our own. — Gran n'/lr. 

3. They always talk who never think. — Prior. 

4. They live too long who happiness outlive. — Dryden. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 29 

5. Cruel people are ever cowards in emergency. — Swift. 

6. Your little child is the only true democrat. — Stowe. 

7. Even peace may be purchased at too high a price. 

— Franklin. 

8. Vanity is often the unseen spur. — Thackeray. 

9. It is a sad discovery that history is so mainly made 
by ignoble men. — Lowell. 

10. On argument alone my faith is built. — Young. 

11. He who is only just is cruel. — Byron. 

12. When Greeks joined Greeks, then was the tug of 
war. — Lee. 

13. The object of oratory alone is not truth, but per- 
suasion. — Macaulay. 

14. Life is but thought. — Coleridge. 

15. Where MacGregor sits, there is the head of the 
table. — Macdonald. 

16. For he that once is good is ever great. — Johnson. 

17. There is no virtue so truly great and godlike as 
justice. — Addison. 

Note that if the words in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing sentences be omitted, the noun, city, is not con- 
nected to the rest of the sentence. 

1. The general rode his horse into the city. 

2. The general rode his horse about the city. 

3. The general rode his horse around the city. 

4. The general rode his horse through the city. 

Note that there are four different relations expressed 
in the foregoing sentences, and that the word in each 
sentence which is not common in all the sentences must 
express the relation idea. 

Note that these relation words in the preceding sen- 
tences are used to indicate the relations between the 
verb, rode, and the noun, city. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Preposition. 53. The part of speech used to connect a noun 
or pronoun to some other part of speech in the 
sentence, and to indicate a relation between them, 
is called a preposition. 

Preposition is from the Latin prepositus — placing 
before, and refers to the early mode of using such 
words as prefixes of verbs. 

Supply appropriate prepositions in blanks of follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. The oldest map the heavens is the Xational 

Library Paris. 

2. The phonograph was invented Thomas A. Edi- 
son 1877. 

3. Roses were first brought England Holland 

1522. 

4. Companion originally meant one who ate the 

same table you. 

5 Comrade originally meant one who slept the 

same chamber you. 

6. The telephone is an instrument designed to repro- 
duce sounds a distance means electricity. 

7. The highest fall water the world is that 

the Yosemite California. 

8. Our American Arbor Day is a day set apart the 

planting shade trees school children. 

9. The largest bell the world is Moscow 

Russia, and the weight it nearly two hundred and fifty 

tons. 

10. The Cathedral St. Mark's Venice 

Italy is considered some to be the finest the 

world. 

Note the prepositions in the following sentences, and 

tell what eaeli one connects: — 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 31 

1. Society is built upon trust. — South. 

2. A man in pursuit of greatness feels no little wants. 

— Emerson. 

3. Self-control is only courage under another form. 

— Smiles. 

4. There is no genius in life like the genius of energy 
and activity. — Mitchell. 

5. The conduct of men depends upon the temperament, 
not upon a bunch of dusty maxims. — Beaconsjield. 

6. Architecture is a creation of the human intellect 
adding to the stores of beauty in the world. — King. 

7. The highest liberty is in harmony with the highest 
laws. — Giles. 

8. Echo is the voice of a reflection in a mirror. 

— Hawthorne. 

9. It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion 
is the chief fact with regard to him. — Carlyle. 

10. Cheerfulness, the character of common hope, is, in 
strong hope, like glances of sunshine on a cloudy day. 

— Baillie. 

11. He was as a man moving his goods into a far coun- 
1 iv. who at intervals and by portions sends them before him, 
till his present abode is well-nigh unfurnished. — Newman. 

Note thai there are two distinct sentences in each of 
the following sentences : — 

1. Opportunity comes, and opportunity goes. 
-. Some are careless, or they are indolent. 

3. Fear weakens, but courage strengthens. 

4. Socrates died because he took poison. 

Note that the words, and, or, but, and because, are 
iisiiI tn join sentences together. 

Note that the words, and, but, and or, in the follow- 
ing sentences are used l«> join together similar parts of 
the same sentence. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Few are equally gifted in writing and in speaking. 

2. Push and pluck will work wonders. 

3. Sometimes justice seems blind, or asleep. 

4. He has been ailing, but has recovered. 

5. Dewey was loyally and enthusiastically received. 

Conjunction. 54. The part of speech used to join together sen- 
tences or like parts of the same sentence is called 
a conjunction. 

Conjunction is from the Latin conjunctus — joined 
together. 

Note that the conjunctions in full-faced type in the 
following sentences are used to join together sentences 
or parts of sentences of equal rank. 

1. Art .is long and time is fleeting. — Longfellow. 

2. Private opinion is weak, but public opinion is almost 
omnipotent. — Beecher. 

3. Knowledge advances by steps, and not by leaps. 

— Macavlay. 

4. Virtue is an angel, but she is a blind one. — Mann. 

5. The public have neither shame nor gratitude. 

— Razlitt. 

6. Eeligion is not a dogma, nor an emotion, but a service. 

— Hitchcock. 

Coordinate 55. A conjunction used to join together con- 
Conjunction. s tructions of equal rank is called a coordinate con- 
junction. 

Note that the conjunctions in full-faced type in the 
following sentences are used to connect the sentences 
which they introduce to sentences of a higher rank. 

1. Liberty, when it begins to take root, is a plant of 
rapid growth. — Washington. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 33 

2. Strike while the iron is hot. — Farquhar. 

3. Would you know what money is ? go borrow some. 

— Herbert. 

4. Look before you ere you leap. — Butler. 

5. If you would be loved, love and be lovable. — Franklin. 

56. A conjunction used to connect a construe- Subordinate 
tion of a lower rank to one of a higher rank or Conjunction. 
order is called a subordinate conjunction. 

57. A sentence introduced by a subordinate .con- Subordinate 
junction is called a subordinate sentence. Sentence. 

Note that subordinate sentence (5) is used to denote 
condition. The subordinate part of the conditional 
sentence is called the condition part (protasis). The 
part on which the protasis depends is called the conclu- 
sion (apodosis). 

Note in foregoing sentence (3) that in a conditional 
sentence when the conditional conjunction is omitted, 
the subject follows the verb. 

Name the conjunctions in the following sentences ; 
state whether coordinate or subordinate, and tell the 
sentences or parts of sentences that each is used to join 
together. 

1. She must weep, or she will die. — Tennyson. 

2. Letters should be easy and natural. — Chesterfield. 

3. Love the offender, yet detest the offense. — Pope. 

4. Shakespeare hath neither equal nor second. — Macaulay. 

5. Great works are prepared, not by strength, but by 
perseverance. — Johnson. 

6. (Jive me liberty or give me death. — Henry. 

7. If misfortune comes, she brings along her bravest 
virtues. — Thompson, 



31 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Some must watch while some must sleep. — Shaks- 
spectre. 

9. We rise in glory as we sink in pride. — Young. 

10. Cost is the father, and compensation is the mother 
of progress. — Holland. 

11. Politeness goes far, yet costs nothing. — Smiles. 

12. There is something noble in publishing truth, though 
it condemn oneself. — John son. 

13. The bluebird is a home bird, and I am never tired 
of recurring to him. — Burroughs. 

14. Life is not a holiday, but an education. — Drummond. 

15. Do not think that years leave us and find us the 
same. — Meredith. 

16. Jokes are the cayenne of conversation and the salt 
of life. — Chatfield. 

17. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle which 
fits them all. — Holmes. 

18. Though punishment be slow, still it comes. — Herbert. 

19. Happiness grows at our own fireside, and is not to 
be picked in strangers' gardens. — Jerrold. 

D. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

A sentence is a group of words used to express a 
complete thought. 

A declarative sentence is that form of sentence 
which is used in making a statement. 

An interrogative sentence is thai form of sen- 
tence which is used in asking questions. 

An imperative sentence is that form of sentence 
which is used in expressing a command or entreaty. 

An exclamatory sentence is any form of sentence 
that gives expression to feeling or emotion. 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 35 

A logical sentence is a sentence regarded as a 
unit of thought. 

The parts of a logical sentence are subject and 
predicate. 

The subject is the part of a sentence used to 
denote that about which something is said. 

The predicate is the part of a sentence used to 
denote that which is said of the subject. 

A grammatical sentence is a sentence regarded 
as a unit of speech. 

Parts of speech are the parts (words) of gram- 
matical sentences. 

A noun is the part of speech used as the name 
of some person or thing. 

A verb is the part of speech used to state or 
assert something about some person or thing. 

A pronoun is the part of speech used as a refer- 
ence word to represent some person or thing. 

An adjective is the part of speech used with the 
noun or pronoun to designate more definitely that 
which the noun or pronoun is used to represent. 

An adverb is the part of speech used with the 
verb to designate more definitely that which the 
verb is used to express. 

A preposition is the part of speech used to con- 
nect a noun or pronoun to sonic other part of 
speech in the sentence, and to indicate a relation 
between them. 

A conjunction is the part of speech used to join 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

together sentences, or like parts of the same sen- 
tence. 

A coordinate conjunction is a conjunction used to 
join together constructions of equal rank or order. 

A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction used 
to join a construction of a lower rank or order to 
one of a higher rank or order. 

An infinitive is a verb form used as a noun. 

A participle is a verb form used as an adjective. 

An object of a verb is a noun or pronoun used to 
complete the idea of the action that the verb is 
used to express. 

A transitive verb is a verb that requires an 
object. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not 
require an object. 

A copulative verb is a verb used to connect the 
subject with some part of speech which, explana- 
tory of the subject, is used to help form the 
predicate. 

A predicate noun is a noun used with a verb to 
help form a predicate. 

A predicate adjective is an adjective used with a 
verb to help form a predicate. 

E. THE INTERJECTION. 

58. There are a number of words in the lan- 
guage that do not belong to the sentence as con- 
stituent parts of it, hence they cannot be regarded 



THE UNIT SENTENCE. 37 

as parts of speech. They are emotional words that 
are thrown into the sentence, and are used to desig- 
nate the kind of feeling with which the thought 
expressed by the sentence is to be regarded. Such 
words are called interjections. 

Interjection is from the Latin word interjectio — an 
insertion. 

To illustrate : — 

1. The battleship has gone down. 

2. Hurrah ! The battleship has gone down. 

3. Alas ! The battleship has gone down. 

Note that the same statement is made in each of the 
foregoing sentences. ' 

Note that the additional words in sentences (2) and 
(3) are used to tell the kind of feeling with which the 
fact stated is regarded. 

Name the probable form of feeling expressed in each 
of the following sentences : — 

1. See ! The cars are coming. 

2. Why ! The cars are coming. 

3. Look out ! The cars are coming. 

4. Huzzah ! The cars are coming. 

5. Oh dear ! The cars are coming. 

6. Help! The cars are coming. 

7. Ah me ! The cars are coming. 

59. An exclamatory word or expression used to intersection. 
designate the kind of feeling with which the 
thought expressed in the sentence is regarded is 
called an interjection. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



II. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 

A. PARTS OF SPEECH DETER MIXED BY USE 
IN SEXTEXGE. 

60. Many words alike in form have different 
uses in the sentence, hence they are used as differ- 
ent parts of speech. 

61. Some words similar in sound are used as 
different parts of speech and should be carefully 
noted. 

Note carefully the words in full-faced type in the 
following sentences, state the part <if speech in each 
case, and give reason for conclusion : — 

1. A single vote frequently determines an election. 

2. Vote for whatever measure you consider right. 

3. A liar is no better than a thief. 

4. A conservative is no friend to radical changes. 

5. They step into the cars and are gone. 

6. One step at a time is all that we can take. 

7. Never mind what others do. 

8. My mind is my kingdom. 

9. The king alone kept his hat on. 

10. They were on the wrecked train. 

11. The fast express has gone by. 

12. Evil habits bound him fast. 

13. His fast lasted forty days. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. I 

14. Your friend lives in the second house above. 

15. My nephew occupied the seat above me. 

16. The distress signal still floats. 

17. He leadeth me beside the still waters. 

18. The still was burned to the ground. 

19. He gloried in being an American. 

20. The rights of an American citizen were denied, 

21. He spoke but a word and gave but a nod. 

22. The enemy advanced, but soon retreated. 

23. No one but himself knew his plans. 

24. The ships were riding near the shore. 

25. In childhood heaven is always near. 

26. As they near the shore we recognize them. 

27. Their spirits flag at the dreary prospect. 

28. A nation's flag reveals a nation's hopes. 

29. They time their footsteps to the music. 

30. Time creeps in childhood, but flies ill old age. 

31. Rush grows on the bank of the river. 

32. They rush to glory or the grave. 

33. The tourists went by water, but came back by rail 

34. A funeral procession has just gone by. 

35. The umpire was hit in the small of the back. 

36. Small pebbles cause great falls. 

37. They clear the decks for action. 

38. The room measures fifty feet in the clear. 

39. A clear sky smiles cheer on our journey. 

40. The monkey ran clear to the tup of the tree 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

41. When the heralds blow the trumpets, all the people 
fall down. 

42. The patriots struck a blow whose echo will go down 
the ages. 

43. The heirs base their claim on hereditary rights. 

44. The bowl was discovered to be made of base metal. 

45. The base of the column was pure Ionic. 

46. All gazed at him while the hymn was sung. 

47. There was an explosion in the mine. 

48. These books are not mine. 

49. They mine ore in great quantities. 

50. The players tried too hard to win. 

51. Each one will have two chances. 

52. All came to school. 

53. All went off at break of day. 

54. The company tried to make a loan. 

55. A lone house stood on the hilL 

56. All efforts were vain. 

57. He wrote in a lighter vein. 

58. The vane was changing with the wind. 

59. Principal and interest are due. 

60. All his acts were guided by principle. 

61. The principal witness is ill. 

62. The principal of the school has returned. 

B. GROUPS OF WORDS USED AS PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 

1. Doing one's duty brings pleasure. 

2. The Talmud is the Bible of the Jews. 

3. The planets move with mathematical precision. 

4. To work, is to live. 

5. The general, seeing the enemy, advanced cautiously. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 41 

Note that each of the indicated groups of words in 
the preceding sentences is used as a part of speech. 

Note that these groups do not contain a subject and 
predicate. 

62. A group of words that is used as a part of phrase. 
speech and does not contain a subject and predi- 
cate is called a phrase. 

Phrase is from the Greek phrasis — expression. 

63. Phrases are named according to use from 
the parts of speech for which they are used. 

Ex. 1. Noun phrase — (1), (4). 

2. Adjective phrase — (2), (5). 

3. Adverb phrase — (3). 

64. According to form, phrases are named from 
the parts of speech introducing them. 

Ex. 1. Infinitive phrase — (1), (4). 

2. Prepositional phrase — (2), (3). 

3. Participial phrase — (5). 

Name the phrases in the following sentences, and 
classify each as to form and use : — 

1. To believe in the heroic makes heroes. — Beacons field. 

2. The best happiness will be to escape the worst misery. 

— Eliot. 

3. The will of the people is the best law. — Grant. 

4. The mob is man voluntarily descending to the level 
of the beast. — Emerson. 

5. To endure is greater than to dare. — TJiackeray. 

(>. To be happy at home is the ultimate resull of all 
ambition. — Johnson. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Note that each of the indicated groups of words in 
the following sentences is used as a part of speech. 

1. We are best known by what we do. 

2. That the majority should rule is an accepted theory. 

3. The man who reads rinds hidden treasure. 

4. The air was cooler when the sun went down. 

Note that each group contains a subject and predi- 
cate. 

Clause. 65 - A g rou P °f words that is used as a part of 
speech and contains a subject and predicate is 
called a clause. 

Name the clauses in the following sentences, and 
state for what part of speech each one is used : — ~ 

1. How near to good is what is fair. — Dryden. 

2. What is said upon a subject is gathered from a hun- 
dred people. — Johnson. 

3. God grants liberty only to those who love it. — Webster. 

4. Never spend your money before you have it. 

— Jefferson. 

5. Children are what their mothers are. — Landor. 

6. I always get the better when I argue alone. — Goldsm ith 

7. Character is the diamond that scratches every other 
stone. — Bartol. 

Name and state the use of each of the clauses and 
phrases in the following sentences : — 

1. To be prepared for war is one of the most efficienl 
means of preserving peace. — Washington. 

2. Purpose is what gives life meaning. — Parkhurst 

3. Being in a ship is like being in a jail with a chance 
of being drowned. — Johnson. 

4. Smiles are smiles only when the heart pulls the wire. 

— Winthrop, 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 43 

5. There is an aching that is .worse than any pain. 

— Macdonald. 

6. To have what we want, is riches ; but to be able to 
do without it, is power. — Id. 

7. The standard which no genius has ever reached is 
his own severe conception. — Hawthorne. 

8. Too low they build who build beneath the stars. 

— Young, 

9. I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my 
country. — Hale. 

10. The hill has not yet lifted its face to heaven that 
perseverance will not gain at last. — Dickens. 

Note that direct quotations may be used as parts 
of speech. 

1. " I am always nearest myself," says the Latin proverb. 

— Macaulay. 

2. The Chinese have an excellent proverb, " Be modest 
in speech, but excel in action." — Maun, 

3. The ancient poet said, "The gods sell all things at a 
fair price." — Emerson. 

4. Cicero tells us that, "Brevity is a great praise of 
eloquence." — Everett. 

5. Democracy means not, "I am as good as you are," 
but, "You are as good as I am." — Parker. 

C. SENTENCES ACCORDING TO BANK 

Note that the following- sentences are independent; 
i.e., not dependent on other sentences for their 
meaning — ■ 

1. A sneer is the weapon of the weak. — Lowell. 

2. Man cannot choose his duties. — Eliot. 

'3. Courage is fire, and bullying is smoke. — Beaconsfield. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Principal 66 - A sentence that is not dependent on another 
Sentence, sentence for its meaning is called an independent 
or principal sentence. 

Note that the following sentences in full-faced type 
are dependent on other sentences for their complete 
meaning : — 

1. There is no time of life at which books do not influence 
a man. — Besant. 

'J. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 

— Shakespeare. 
3. Difficulties spur us whenever they do not check us. 

— Beade. 

Subordinate 67 - ^ sentence that is dependent on another 
Sentence, sentence for its complete meaning is called a de- 
pendent or subordinate sentence. 1 

68. A subordinate sentence, as a modifying ele- 
ment, is always used as a part of speech, hence, iii 
use, it is a clause. 

Name the principal and subordinate sentences in the 
following : — 

1. Whenever luxury ceases to be innocent, it also ceases 
to be beneficial. — Hume. 

2. He that can have patience can have what he will. 

— Franklin. 

3. As society advances, the standard of poverty rises. 

— Parker. 

4. If we wish ourselves to be high, we should treat that 
which is over us as high. — TroUope. 

5. No nation can bear wealth that is not intelligent first. 

lir> cht r. 

1 See Notes for Teachers, 1. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 45 

6. But there are times when patience proves at fault. 

— Browning. 

7. Art must anchor in nature, or it is the sport of every 
breath of folly. — Hazlitt. 

8. When all shoot at one mark, the gods join in the com- 
bat. — Emerson. 

9- A sculptor wields 

The chisel, and the stricken marble grows 
To beauty. — Bryant. 

D. SENTENCES ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION 

We have learned that a sentence is a group of words 
used to express a complete thought, and that it con- 
sists of two parts — the subject and the predicate. 

69. A sentence that consists of one subject and simple 
one predicate is called a simple sentence. Sentence. 

1. Sponges are animals. 

2. A starfish has an eye at the end of each ray. 

Note that each of the preceding typical sentences 
(•(insists of a single subject and a single predicate. 

1. Oxygen and hydrogen are gases. 

2. Animals and vegetables have life. 

Note that each of the preceding typical sentences 
consists of two single subjects and a single predicate. 

1. The Dutch founded and settled New Amsterdam. 

2. Some birds both run and fly. 

Note that each of the preceding typical sentences 
consists of a single subject and two single predicates. 

1. Example and experience teach and train men. 

2. Neither wind nor tide obeys or waits for any man. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMA It. 

Note that each of the preceding typical sentences 
consists of two single subjects and two single predicates. 

Observe that a simple subject means a single subject 
or any number of single subjects regarded as one 
subject. 

Observe that a simple predicate means a single pred- 
icate or any number of single predicates regarded as 
one predicate. 

State to which one of the foregoing classes each of 
the following simple sentences belongs: — 

1. Every artist clips his brush into his own soul and 
paints his own nature into his picture. — Beecher. 

2. Accent and emphasis are the pith of reading. 

— Disraeli. 

3. We make our fortunes and call them fate. 

— Beaconsfield. 

4. Laughter is the chorus of conversation. — Steele. 

5. Knavery and flattery are blood relations. — Lincoln. 

6. Good manners and good morals are sworn friends 
and firm allies. — Bartol. 

7. He watched and wept and prayed and felt for all. 

— Goldsmith. 

8. The busy have no time for tears. — Byron. 

9. Fancy and pride seek things at vast expense. 

— Young. 

10. Death robs the rich and relievos the poor. — Basford. 

11. Lies can destroy, but not create. — Tupper. 

12. Mother is the name of God in the Lips and hearts of 
little children. — Thackeray. 

Note that each of the following sentences consists of 
two principal or independent sentences. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 47 

1. Sorrow makes men sincere, and anguish makes them 
earnest. — Beecher. 

2. Just praise is only a debt, but flattery is a present. 

— Johnson. 

3. Sunlight is painting ; moonlight is sculpture. 

— Hawthorne. 

70. A sentence that consists of two or more Compound 
principal sentences is called a compound sentence. Sentence. 

Name the principal sentences in each of the follow- 
ing 1 compound sentences : — 

1. Work is the means of living, but it is not living. 

— Holland. 

2. Keep cool ; auger is not argument. — Webster. 

3. A statesman makes the occasion, but the occasion 
makes the politician. — Hillard. 

4. Taxation reaches clown to the base, but the base is 
labor, and labor pays all. — Piatt. 

Note that each of the following sentences consists of 
one principal sentence and one or more subordinate 
sentences: — 

1. Conceit is the most incurable disease that is known to 
the human soul. — Beecher. 

2. Diogenes struck the father when the son swore. 

— Baxter. 

3. Hypocrisy is the shell after the kernel is eaten out. 

—Bartol. 

4. We shall be judged not by what we might have been, 
but what we have been. — Lowell. 

71. A sentence that consists of one principal Complex 
sentence and one or more subordinate sentences is Sentence, 
called a complex sentence. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. How blessings brighten 

as they take their flight. 

— Young. 

2. Greatness is unsociable. — Landor. 

as we daily see it 

3. He only has power over it. — Richardson. 

Iho avelifj 

matters speed well. 

4. Where there is a mother in the house — Alcott. 



Note in the preceding representations of the relations 
of sentences, that a subordinate sentence is placed on a 
plane below the principal sentence. 

According to the foregoing scheme, express the rela- 
tions of the sentences contained in the following com- 
plex sentences: — 

1. If Hero means sincere man, why may not every one 
of us be a Hero ? — Carlyle. 

2. No grace can help any man unless he helps himself. 

Hi < 'In r. 

3. He who ordained the Sabbath loved the poor. 

— Holmes, 

4. My heart leaps up when I behold 

. A rainbow in the sky. — Wordsworth. 

5. Night brings out stars as sorrows show us truths. 

— Jinil, //. 

6. Beauty is part of the finished language by which 
goodness speaks. — Eliot. 

7. Bravery has uo place where it can avail nothing. 

— Joint si >i( 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 49 

8. The only jewel which will not decay is knowledge. 

— Longford. 

9. Other men are lenses through which we see our own 
minds. — Emerson. 

10. They that stand high have many blasts to shake 
them. — Shakespeare. 

11. An idler is a watch that wants both hands. — Oowper 

12. When the world frowns we can face it. — Lytton. 

Note from the following compound sentences that 
one or more of the independent elements of a sentence 
may be modified by a subordinate sentence : — 

l. 1 He will undervalue others ; 

I I 

that overvalues himself 

and he will oppress them. 

that undervalues others — Joh nson . 

laws are useless ; 

I 

2. When men are pure 

laws are broken. — Beaconsjield. 

I 
When men are corrupt 

3. Laws are not masters, but servants, 
and he rules them 

who obeys them. — Beech&r. 

Name the sentences and their relations to one an- 
other in each of the following compound sentences, and 
represent their relations according to the foregoing 
scheme of representation : — 

1. When liberty is gone, life grows insipid and has lost 

LtS ivlish. — AddlSOU. 



1 Sit Notes for Teachers. 1'. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. He who loves goodness harbors angels, reveres rev- 
erence, and lives with God. — Emerson. 

3. Resolve to be thyself, and know that he who finds 
himself loses his misery. — Arnold. 

4. Do not believe that happiness makes us selfish ; it is 
treason to the sweetest gift of life. — " Ouida." 

5. The honors we grant mark how high we stand, and 
they educate the future. — Phillips. 

Name and give the elements of the following simple, 

complex, and compound sentences : — 

1. If you want learning, you must work for it. — Holland. 

2. Slow are the steps of Freedom, but her feet never turn 
backward. — Loivell. 

3. There never was a person that did anything worth 
doing who did not really receive more than he gave. 

— Bet cht r. 

4. The hills were already green; the early grain waved 
in the fields, and the air was sweet with blossoming 
orchards. — Curtis. 

5. As I speak to you to-day, I wish to tell you of a 
soldier who lay wounded on a hard-fought field. — Grady. 

6. When night is on the deep, when the headlands are 
obscured by the darkness, and when storm is in the air. that 
man who undertakes to steer by looking over the side of the 
ship, over the bow or over the stern, or by looking at the 
clouds or his own fears, is a fool. — Beecher. 

7. The habit of reading is the only enjoyment I know in 
which there is no alloy. It lasts when all other pleasures 
fade. It will be there to support you when all other re- 
sources are gone. It will be present to you when all tin- 
energies of your body have fallen away from you. It will 
last you until your death. It will make your hours pleasant 
to you as long as you live. — TroUope. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 51 

E. ANALYSIS. 

1. Good taste always rejects excessive nicety. 

Name the two elements in the foregoing sentence 
that constitute the thought. 

Name the words in the same sentence used as the 

Verb, 

Subject of verb, 

Object of verb, 

Word used with the verb (modifier), 

Word used with subject (modifier), 

Word used with object (modifier). 

72. The separation of a sentence into its ele- Analysis. 
ments is called analysis. 

Analysis is from the Greek analysis — a resolving 
into elements. 

73. The opposite process, or the putting together Synthesis, 
the elements to form a sentence, is called synthesis. 

74. The separation of a sentence into its thought Logical 
elements is called logical analysis. Analysis. 

75. The separation of a sentence into its word Gram- 
elements (parts of speech) is called grammatical matical 

Analysis. 
analysis. 

76. An expression of the products of an analysis Diagram- 
ed a sentence may be made through some visual mm £- 
representation of the relations of the different 

parts of the sentence. Such a visual representa- 
tion of the analysis of a sentence is called map- 
ping, or diagramming. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

For example : the visual representation of the analy- 
sis of the sentence already considered might be ex- 
pressed thus : — 

Good taste /\ always rejects excessive nicety. (Logical.) 

taste I rejects I nicety I , L . . . 

^r- 1 ^ — — r- 1 —. — (Grammatical.) 

good | always | excessive | v 

Note in the preceding scheme for visual representa- 
tion of grammatical analysis that the subject, verb, and 
object are on the same plane, and that the word modi- 
fier of each is on a plane below. 

Note also how the subject, verb, and object are 
separated, and how the word modifiers are connected. 

Give the logical and grammatical analyses of the 
following sentences : — 

1. All things obey fixed laws. 

2. Youth has many longings. 

3. Moderation holds the middle ground. 

Represent the analysis of each of the foregoing sen- 
tences by diagram according to forms given. 

Analyze the following sentence : — 

Self-denial is the best riches. 

Note how the relation of verb with predicate, noun, 
or adjective may be expressed in tin 1 following visual 
representation : — 

Self-denial ^ is the best riches. (Logical.) 

Self-denial | is / riches 



the licst 



(Grammatical.) 



Note how the predicate noun is separated from the 
verb. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE- 53 

Note liow two modifiers used with the same word 
are represented. 

Analyze the following sentences and afterward ex- 
press the analysis according to the foregoing diagram 
form : — 

1. The best men are the heroic men. 

2. Corrupted freemen are abject slaves. 

3. A great fortune is a great care. 

4. Personal revenge is never sweet. 

Analyze the following sentence : — 

Boasting is the wisdom of the fool. 

Note how the relation of a prepositional phrase may 
be expressed in the following visual representation : — 

Boasting y\ is the wisdom of the fool. (Logical.) 

Boasting | is / wisdom | (Grammatical.) 

~the~P 

of 



Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards 
express the analysis according to the foregoing diagram 
forms : — 

1. Impatience never commands success. — Ckapin. 

2. Good manners are a part of good morals. — Whatdy. 

3. Literature is the garden of Avisdom. — Ellis. 

4. A fat kitchen makes a lean will. — Franklin. 

5. The only cure for grief is action. — Lewes. 

6. A narrow niiiul begets obstinacy. — Dryden. 

7. A dandy is a, clothes-wearing man. — Carlyle. 

8. Principle is a fashion for truth. — HasHitt. 

9. A fuol is tin- zero of humanity. — Basford. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10. Home is the sacred refuge of our life. — Dryden. 

11. The truth university of these days is a collection of 
books. — ■ Cad; lie. 

12. Children will imitate their fathers in their vices. 

— Spurgeon. 

13. The practical effect of a belief is the real test of its 
soundness. — Froude. 

Analyze the following sentences, and note how the 
relations of infinitive phrases are expressed in subse- 
quent visual forms : 

1. To work is life. 

2. To rest is to rust. 

3. He was anxious to go. 

4. He expected to die. 

5. To oppose the measure is to kill it. 

6. To be busy is to be happy and contented. 

1. To work | is / life . 

2. To rest | is / to rust. 

3. He | was / anxious | 

I to go . 

4. He | expected | to die. 

5. To oppose | measure | is / to kill | it. 

the | 

happy 
and 

6. To be busy | is / to be / contented 



Note how an infinitive phrase differs from a preposi- 
tional phrase in representation. 

Note how two or more adjectives arc represented in 
the predicate (G). 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 



55 



Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards 
express the analysis according to the foregoing diagram 
forms : — 

1. To be gentle is the test of a lady. — Feltham. 

2. A nation cannot afford to do a mean thing. — Sumner. 

3. To be furious in religion is to be irreligiously 
religious. — Penn. 

4. To be ignorant of one's ignorance is the melody of 
ignorance. — Alcott. 

5. To be selfish is to be ignoble. — Hcuceis. 

6. To be true is manly, chivalrous. Christian. — Garlyle. 

Analyze the following sentences, and note how the 
relations of clause forms are expressed in subsequent 
diagram forms : — 

1. Trees grow while we sleep. 

2. They who mourn shall be comforted. 

3. All noticed that the birds were leaving. 

4. That he was courageous can hardly be denied. 

5. If sorrow is shadow, joy is sunshine. 

6. He asked what he was doing. 

Trees [ grow | 



while 



sleep 



2. They | shall be comforted 



who | mourn | 



3. All 



noticed 



that 



birds | were leaving | 
the | 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That 
4. | he | was / courageous 



5. Joy | is / sunshine | 

if 



sorrow is 



/ shadow | 



can bo denied ' 



hardly 



6. He | asked | he | was doing | what 



Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards 
express the analysis according to the foregoing dia- 
gram : — 

1. If knowledge is power, patience is powerful. 

—Robert 11"!/. 

2. What I have done is due to patient thought. 

— Sir Isaac Newton. 

3. The lowest ebb is the turn of the tide. — Longfellow. 

4. Clothes form the intellect of the dandy. — Shaw. 

5. Every fact that is learned becomes a key to other 
facts. — Youmans. 

6. To cultivate kindness is a valuable part of the busi- 
ness of life. — Johnson. 

7. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron. 

8. Not to know what happened before we were born is 
always to remain a child. — Chatfidd. 

9. What we seek we shall find; what we flee from, flies 
from us. — Emerson. 

10. Success is full of promise till men get it, and then it 
seems like a nest from which the bird has flown. — Beecht r. 



THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 57 

F. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

A phrase is a group of words that is used as a 
part of speech and does not contain a subject and 
predicate. 

A clause is a group of words that is used as a 
part of speech, and contains a subject and predicate. 

A principal sentence is a sentence that is not 
dependent on another sentence for its meaning. 

A subordinate sentence is a sentence that is 
dependent on another sentence for its complete 
meaning. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of 
one subject and a predicate, or a number of sub- 
jects and predicates regarded as one. 

A compound sentence is a sentence that consists 
of two or more principal sentences. 

A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of 
one principal sentence and one or more subordi- 
nate sentences. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
parts or elements. 

Synthesis is the putting together of the elements 
or parts of a sentence to form a sentence. 

Logical analysis is the separation of a sentence 
into its thought elements. 

Grammatical analysis is the separation of a sen- 
tence into its word elements. 

Diagramming is a visual representation of the 
products of an analysis. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

I. Sentences as to form of expression. 

1. Simple. 

1. Declarative. 3. Imperative. 

2. Interrogative. 

2. Emotional. 

1. Exclamatory Declarative. 

2. Exclamatory Interrogative. 

3. Exclamatory Imperative. 

II. Sentences as to elements. 

1. Logical. 

1. Subject. 2. Predicate. 

2. Grammatical. 
1. Simple. 

1. Verb. 5. Adverb. 

2. Noun. (!. Preposition. 

3. Pronoun. 7. Conjunction. 

4. Adjective. 

2. Equivalents of parts of speech. 

1. Phrase. 2. Clause. 

III. Sentences as to rank. 

1. Principal. 2. Subordinate. 

IV. Sentences as to composition. 

1. Simple. 3. Complex. 

2o Compound. 



Part II. 

THE MODIFICATIONS AND RELA- 
TIONS OP PARTS OF SPEECH. 



I. NOUNS. 
A. CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

A noun is a word used as the name of some 
person, place, or thing. 

Note that each of the following nouns is the name of 
a class, or the name shared by individuals of a class : — 
man day weeping bird chair 

desk heroism sky street singing 

money book taste reading pencil 

boy envy joy wealth room 

77. A noun that is the name of a class or the Common 
name shared hy individuals of a class is called a Noun. 
common noun. 

Common is from the Latin communis — common, 
general. 

Note that each of the following common nouns is 
used as a name of a group of similar things: — 
audience bevy group family 

convention crowd fleet regiment 

1 pie swarm flock school 

army covey brood jury 

50 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Collective 78 - A. common noun that is used as the name of 
Noun. a group of similar things is called a collective noun. 

Collective is from the Latin collectivus — gathered 
together. 

In a collective noun the names of things are gathered 
together or collected into a single group. 

The unit of the collective noun is not an individual 
person or thing, but is a group of persons or things. 

Note that each of the following nouns is used as the 
name of a quality, an action or a state of action : — 

sourness mildness choice 
manhood singing deceit 
horsemanship service purity- 
heroism sleeping strength 

Abstract 79 - A common noun used as the name of an 
Noun, action, a quality, or a state of action is called an 
abstract noun. 

Abstract is from the Latin abstractns — drawn away. 

Note that the quality, action, or state of action that 
an abstract noun is used to name has existence in the 
object to which it belongs, but has no real existence 
apart from that object. Its existence can only in 
thought be drawn away from the object. 

To illustrate: When we say the apple is sweet, we 
state that the apple has a given quality. Now in 
thought draw away that quality from the apple. The 
name of the quality drawn away is sweetness, the ab- 
stract noun formed from the adjective sweet. 

When we say the horse trots, we state that the horse 
is doing a given kind of action. Now in thought draw 



NOUNS. 61 

away that action from the horse. The name of the 
action drawn away is trotting, the abstract noun formed 
from the verb trot. 

In like manner explain and form abstract nouns 
from the following: — 

1. Adjectives: just, wide, wise, dark, pure. 

2. Verbs : learn, advise, judge, plan, invent. 

3. Nouns : leader, child, martyr, hero, man. 

Note in the following sentences that an abstract 
noun may be used like a collective noun to express a 
group idea. 

1. The youth (collective body of young people) of Amer- 
ica has great possibilities. 

2. The nobility (collective body of titled persons) of 
England is rich in privileges. 

Note that each of the following nouns is used as the 
name of an individual thing not belonging to a class: — 
Dewey Emerson Horace Mann 

Richmond San Francisco Napoleon 

Lincoln Boston Michigan 

Chicago St. Louis James Eussell Lowell 

80. A noun used as the name of an individual 
thing not belonging to a class is called a proper Noun. 
noun. 

Proper is from the Latin proprius — one's own, or 
belonging to. 

A proper noun is a name belonging to one person 
or thing as a mark of identification. 

Note in the following sentences thai a proper noun 
may be used to designate a number of the same family, 

name, etc. 



Proper 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. The Adamses and the Harrisons have each furnished 
two presidents of the United States. 

2. The Booths have added luster to the annals of the 
American stage. 

3. The Pitts made a mighty impress on English states- 
manship. 

81. A proper noun becomes a common noun 
when it is used as the name of a class or character- 
istic. 

1. Lincoln is called the "Washington of our new- 
nationality. 

2. Virgil was called the Homer of the Romans. 

82. A common noun may be regarded as a 
proper noun when it is used as an individual name 
by personification, as : — 

1. Now Nature hangs her mantle green 
On every blooming tree. — Burns. 

2. If you don't give Justice the first place at th e^ table, 
all the other virtues eat up her share. — Lyttenr. 

3. Auspicious Hope: in thy sweet garden grow 
Wreaths for each toil ; a charm for every woe. 

. — ( 'unijihr!/. 

Name the nouns in the following sentences and tell 
to what class each belongs : — 

1. Caesar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Crom- 
well ; and George the Third, — may profit by their ex- 
ample. — Henr>/. 

2. No, there come in lots 

The American Disraelis, Luhvers, and Scotts. 

— Lowell. 



NOUNS. 63 

3. Measure your health by your sympathy with morning 
and spring. If there is no response in you to the awaken- 
ing of Nature, if the prospect of an early morning walk doth 
not banish sleep, if the warble of the first bluebird does not 
thrill you, know that the morning and spring of your life is 
past. — TJwreau. 

4. Webster could awe a senate, Everett could charm a 
college, and Choate could cheat a jury; Clay could magnet- 
ize the million, and Corwin lead them captive. But O'Con- 
nell was Clay, Corwin, Choate, Everett, and Webster in one. 
Before the courts, logic; at the bar of the senate, unanswer- 
able ; on the platform, grace, wit, and pathos ; before the 
masses, a whole man. — Phillips. 

5. This government carries the hope of the human race. 
Blot out the beacon that lights the portals of this Republic, 
and the world is adrift again. But save the Republic, estab- 
lish the light of its beacon over the troubled waters, and 
one by one the nations of the earth shall drop anchor and 
be at rest in the harbor of universal liberty. — Grady. 

B. GENDER. 

Name the sex of the individual to which each of the 



following nouns refers: — 




Esther 




John nephew 


landlady 


brother 




aunt Mary 


queen 


boy 




heroine widow 


Ruth 


niece 




widower sister 


"William 


Sex 


is a 


distinction between animals or other living 



things as male or female. 

83. The grammatical distinction between the g enj j e 
names of animals or living things by reference to 
sex is called gender. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Masculine 
Gender. 



Feminine 
Gender. 



Gender is from the Latin genus — kind. 

Sex is a distinction between individuals. Gender is 
a corresponding distinction between words used as tl it- 
names of individuals. When the sex of the individual 
is known, the gender of the noun can be definitely 
known ; otherwise the gender will be indeterminate. 

Animals are of two sexes, male and. female. 

Nouns used as names of animals are of two corre- 
sponding genders. 

84. A noun used as the name of an animal of 
the male sex is in the masculine gender. 

Masculine is from the Latin masculinus — a male. 

85. A noun used as the name of an animal of 
the female sex is in the feminine gender. 

Feminine is from the Latin fe?7iininus — a female. 



Name the sex to which each of the following nouns 
refers : — 



child 


neighbor 


servant 


company 


cousin 


partner 


friend 


audience 


teacher 


waiter 


writer 


group 



Common 
Gender. 



Note that the sex to which the preceding nouns 
refer is not determinable. 

86. A noun used as the name of an animal or 
animals whose sex is unknown is in the indeter- 
minate or common gender. 



Note that the following nouns are used as names of 
inanimate thinffs : — 



NOUNS. 65 

ear Syracuse flower chair 

house eye sand store 

hand rock Albany wagon 

Inanimate things have no sex distinction ; hence, 
names of inanimate things can have no gender. 

87. 1 A noun used as the name of an inanimate ]j eu ter 
thing is a genderless or neuter noun. Noun. 

Neuter is from the Latin neuter — -neither. 

Tell the gender of the f ollowing nouns : — 
bride master people witch 

earl sheep colt emperor 

author parent heiress preceptor 

wife Jewess lamb woman 

Write out ten additional nouns with masculine 
gender. 

Write out ten additional nouns with feminine gender. 
Write out ten additional nouns with common gender. 
Write out twenty additional neuter nouns. 

88. The gender of most English nouns is simply 
a classification of nouns according to meaning and 
by reference to sex. There are, however, a num- 
ber of nouns that have distinguishing forms for 
masculine and feminine genders. This class of 
purely grammatical gender nouns has three dis- 
tinct methods of denoting gender, as follows: — 

1. By use of different words for masculine and 
feminine. 

2. By use of different suffix endings. 

8. By use of distinguishing words added or prefixed 
to common gender nouns. 

1 Sec Notes I'm- Teachers, :). 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



89. Gender denoted by different words. 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


I KM 1 SINK. 


husband 


wife 


king 


queen 


papa 


mamma 


earl 


countess 


father 


mother 


lord 


lady 


son 


daughter 


wizard 


witch 


brother 


sister 


uncle 


aunt 


nephew 


niece 


sir 


madam 


gentleman 


lady 


bachelor 


maid 


boy 


girl 


monk 


nun 


tutor 


governess 


friar 


sister 


lad 


lass 


beau 


belle 


cock or rooster 


hen 


ram or buck 


ewe 


dog 


bitch 


stag 


hind 


buck 


doe 


bull 


cow 


horse 


mare 


sire 


dam 


drone 


bee 







Suffix 
ess. 



90. Gender denoted by different suffix endings 
(inflection). 

The early English suffixes used to denote gendei 
have passed away, and to-day are found only in isolated 
words, such as spinster, having the feminine suffix ster, 
and vixen, with the feminine suffix en. 

Modern taste is rapidly discouraging the use of 
feminine forms of masculine nouns. Some proper 
names formerly used exclusively of one sex are now 
sometimes used of either. 

91. The only suffix used in forming new femi- 
nine words is the French suffix ess. 



The suffix 
follows : — 



is used in fonni 



emmme nouns as 



heir 


peer 


prior 


host 


priest 


Quaker 


Jew 


patron 


Shaker 


lion 


shepherd 


viscount 



NOUNS. 67 

1. By adding it directly to the masculine gender 
noun. 

According to the foregoing rule form feminine nouns 
from the following masculine nouns : — 

baron 
count 
deacon 
giant 

2. By adding ess to masculine nouns with the vowel 
of last syllable of masculine nouns cut out. 

According to the foregoing rule form feminine nouns 
from the following masculine nouns : 

actor ogre tiger director 

benefactor prince traitor arbiter 

enchanter hunter votary negro 

preceptor waiter 

3. By adding ess to masculine nouns with the last 
syllable of masculine nouns dropped ; for example : — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

caterer cateress 

murderer murderess 

emperor empress * 

mister mistress 1 

Note that the following nouns used in legal phrase- 
ology, and taken directly from the Latin, have the end- 
ing tor for masculine and trix for feminine nouns : — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

executor executrix 

prosecutor prosecutrix 

testator testatrix 

administrator administratrix 

1 Note that the vowel e is cut out (syncopated) in uniting. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note that the following nouns have irregular gender 
forms : — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

god goddess 

duke duchess 

marquis marchioness 

hero heroine 

man woman 

widower widow 

bridegroom bride 

drake duck 

gander goose 

92. Gender denoted by distinguishing masculine 
and feminine words : — 

1. Prefixed to common gender nouns : — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

man-servant maid-servant 

he-goat she-goat 

cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 

bull-elephant cow-elephant 

buck-lamb ewe-lamb 

bull-calf heifer-calf 

2. Added to gender or neuter nouns : — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Englishman Englishwoman 

landlord landlady 

horseman horsewoman 

stepfather stepmother 

godfather godmother 

stepson stepdaughter 

turkey-cock turkey-hen 



NOUXS. 



Foreign Gender Forms. 



MASCULINE. 

czar 

seilor 
signor 

sultan 

khedive 

viceroy 

don 

infante or infant 



FEMININE. 

czarina 

senorita 

signora 

sultana 

khedivah 

vicereina 

donna or dona 

infanta 



Notes on Gendek. 

1. When one gender noun is formed from another, 
the masculine form is used as the basis for forming 
the feminine in all cases excepting the masculine nouns, 
bridegroom, toidower, drake, and gander, which are 
formed from the feminine nouns, bride, widoiv, duck, 
goose. 

2. Songstress and seamstress have double feminine 
forms, viz., ster and ess : — 

Songstress = song + ster + ess. 
Seamstress = seam -!- ster + ess. 

3. Names of living things are sometimes used as 
neuter nouns when the sex notion is disregarded ; as in 
the names of small children and lower animals : for 
example, — 

The baby was sleeping, 

Its mother was weeping. — Samuel Lover. 

4. A common noun may become a determinate 
gender (masculine or feminine) noun when the definite 
sex to which it refers becomes known . for example, — 

The happy parent clasps her child to her breast. 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



5. An inanimate thing is frequently regarded as a 
person, and a noun used as the name of such person 
may become masculine or feminine by personification ; 
for example : — 



Virtue is her own reward. — Dryden. 
Did Amaranthus all his beauty shed, 
And Daffodillies fill their cups with tears ? ■ 



MUton. 



Number. 



C. NUMBER. 

Select from the following list of nouns those which 
are used as the name of a single object ; also those 
which are used as the name of more than one object : — 



lamp 


villages 


acorn 


enemies 


books 


town 


France 


friend 


Buffalo 


roads 


horses 


Africa 


Henry 


cities 


dollars 


eggs 


Mary 


carpets 


dogs 


shop 


street 


flower 


trees 


Helen 



Note that the foregoing nouns have the property of 
designating whether one or more than one object is 
named. 

93. That property of a noun which indicates 
whether one or more than one object is designated 
is number. 



Singular 94 - The number that indicates that one object 

Number. i s designated is the singular number. 

Plural 95 - The number that indicates that more than 

Number, one object is designated is the plural number. 



NOUNS. 71 



Formation of Plural Number. 

I. The plural is commonly formed by adding s 
to the singular form. 

According to Rule I. give plurals of the following 
singular nouns : — 



pencil 


pen 


flower 


per op 


spoon 


bottle 


father 


stamp 


cart 


cup 


ink 


wine 



Note 1. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a conso- 
nant change y to ie before adding s to form the plural. 

According to Note 1 form plurals from the following 
singular nouns : — 

fly daisy duty 

lady sky lily 

army body baby 

liberty city charity 

Note 2. — Three nouns ending in fe change fe to ve 
before adding s to form plural. 
Form plurals of knife, wife, life. 

II. The plural is sometimes formed by adding 
es to the singular form. 

1. When the singular ends in letters having a hiss- 
ing sound (s, #, z, sh and ch soft, like eh in mucli) 
Form plurals according to (1) of 

fox ash dash patch 

topaz tax watch wish 

mass leech guess crutch 

pench pass blush rush 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Twelve nouns ending in / change f to v before 
adding the plural ending es. 

Form plurals of 



beef 


calf 


elf 


half 


leaf 


wharf 


loaf 


self 


sheaf 


shelf 


thief 


wolf 



3. Some nouns ending in o add es to singular to 
form plural. 

According to foregoing rule form plurals of 

hero potato echo 

cargo veto mulatto 

negro tomato motto 

Note. — In some nouns ending in o which are recenl 
additions to the language, s is regularly added to the 
singular to form the plural. 

Ex. banjo, dynamo, piano, lasso, solo, quarto, port- 
folio, octavo, oratorio, tyro, folio, nuncio, rondo. 

III. The plural of the following nouns is formed 
by adding en to the singular : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


ox 


oxen 


child 


children 


brother 


brethren 



Note. — Children and brethren arc in reality double 
plurals. Ohilder and br ether are old English plurals. 
and in dialect language of to-day childer is the plural of 
child : — 

childer + en = chUderen, shortened to children. 
brether + en = bretheren. shortened to brethren. 



NOUNS. 73 

IV. In the following nouns the vowel or vowels 
of the singular are changed to form the plural : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


man 


men 


foot 


feet 


woman 


women 


mouse 


mice 


goose 


geese 


tooth 


teeth 



V. The apostrophe ( ' ) with s is added to the 
singular to form the plural of numbers, letters, 
characters, words, phrases, or clauses regarded as 
unit names ; as, — 

1. In the number 8 are four 2's, or two 4's. 

2. He always dotted his i's and crossed his t's with pain- 
ful exactness. 

3. The I's and my's and me's in his sj)eech pass beyond 
the bounds of modesty and good taste. 

4. His " I told you so's " were wearisome, and his " It 
might have been's " were annoying. 

Peculiarities in Number. 
1. Some nouns are singular in form and in use. 

1. Names of materials ; as, clay, silver, gold, wheat, flesh, 
flour, platinum. 

2. Names of qualities; as, pride, patience, peace, faith, 
whiteness, thankfulness. 

3. Names of diseases; as, dyspepsia, pneumonia, pleu- 
risy, rheumatism. 

2. Some nouns are singular in form, but singular or 
plural in use ; as, — 

deer, sheep, grouse, salmon, trout, hose, heathen. 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Some nouns are singular in form, but generally 
regarded plural in use ; as, — 

alms, eaves, riches. 

4. Some nouns are plural in form and use ; as, — 

trousers, scissors, billiards, bans, tongs, nuptials, spec- 
tacles, thanks, premises. 

5. Some nouns are plural in form, but singular in 
use ; as, — 

news, tidings, amends, statics, optics, economics, physics, 
measles. 

6. Some nouns are plural in form, but singular or 
plural in use ; as, — 

wages, means, politics, athletics, odds. 

7. Some nouns have one plural with two different 
meanings : as, — 



custom customs 

effect effects 

ground grounds 

letter letters 

number numbers 

pain pains 

part parts 

shroud shrouds 



(habits) 

(manifestations) 

(lauds) 

(alphabet) 

(figures) 

(suffering) 

(pieces or 

divisions) 
(robes for dead) 



(revenue duties) 
(goods) 
(dregs) 
(literature) 
(poetical parts) 
(care) - 
(faculties or 

abilities) 
(stay ropes 

for ships) 



8. Some nouns have two plural forms with different 
meanings ; as, — 



NOUNS. 



75 



SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL 

brother brothers brethren 

(of family) (of society) 

cloth cloths clothes 

(kinds or pieces (garments) 

of cloth) 
die dice 

(gaming cubes) 
fish fishes 

(number of) 
genius geniuses 

(men of original 
power) 
index indexes 

(contents) 
pea peas 

(number of) 
penny pennies 

(number of) 
shot shot 

(number of 
balls) 

9. The singular number is frequently used for the 
plural in nouns expressing quantity or number, when 
the plural idea of quantity or number is expressed by 
the words used with the nouns ; as, — 

A hundred-yard dash, a ten-mile race, a ten-foot 
pole, two brace of partridges, three pair of shoes, four 
yoke of oxen, two span of horses, a hundred head of 
cattle. 

Proper nouns are generally singular, but when used 
in the plural, follow the regular law of plural forma- 
tions ; as, — 

Yagers, Duffeys, Lanes, lleids, Halls. 



dies 

(coining stamps) 
fish 

(quantity of) 
genii 

(powerful spirits) 

indices 

(algebraic signs) 
pease 

(quantity of) 
pence 

(value of) 
shots 

(number of 
discharges) 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When a title of address precedes the noun, either the 
title or the name may receive the plural ; as, — 

Misses Fordham, or Miss Fordhams, Messrs. Murdock, 
or Mr. Murdocks ; Drs. Didama, or Dr. Didamas. 

Both of these forms are in common use, yet in 
formal address it is preferable to pluralize the title of 
address. 

Compound Nouns. 

The plural of compound nouns is formed in three 
different ways. 

1. When the compound word is regarded as a unit 
word, the plural is added at the end of the compound 
word ; as, — 

forget-me-nots, receiving-houses, four per cents, basket- 
fuls, wagon-loads. 

2. When the compound word has an important 
word in the union, that word receives the plural ; as, — 

hangers-on, sons-in-law, men-of-war, minute-men, reed- 
birds. 

3. When the compound noun consists of words that 
are regarded of equal importance in the union, each 
part receives the plural ; as, — 

men-servants, women-servants, lords-justices," knights- 
templars. 

Notes on Number. 

1. Proper nouns do not regularly admit of a plural, 
but may be used in the plural number to designate 
more than one of the same family, name, etc. (Sit 80.) 



NOUNS. 77 

2. Common class nouns designating material objects 
do not admit of a plural excepting to denote different 
qualities or component parts of materials ; as, — 

soaps, teas, coffees, breads, sandstones, etc. 

3. Some abstract nouns become common class nouns, 
and as such are used in the plural to denote particular 
action or particular varieties of quality ; as, — 

liberties, virtues, vices, negligences. 

D. CASE. 

It has been stated that the sentence is the grammati- 
cal unit, and that its component elements are parts of 
speech. 

The parts of speech are bound together in a sentence 
by certain relation ; to illustrate, regard Henry — 
brought — Mary 8 — letters, as isolated words, and ideas 
are suggested, but no thought is expressed by them. 

Form these same words into a sentence ; as, Henry 
brought Marys letters, and the only addition made is 
the linking or relating of these words to one another. 

In nouns and pronouns this relating element is called 
case. 

96. The property or use of a noun that denotes 
its relation to other words in the sentence is called 
case. 

Case is from the Latin casus = a falling (or varying 
from a standard form). 

Note the case relations expressed in the foregoing 
sentence. The noun, Henry, is the subject of the verb, 
brought, hence denotes the subjective relation. The 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

noun, letters, is the object of the verb, brought, hence 
denotes the objective relation. The noun, Mart/*, is 
used to denote the possessor of that which is expressed 
by the noun, letters, hence it denotes the possessive 
relation. 

In modern English there are three cases or groups 
of relations : the nominative, the objective, and the 
possessive. 

Nominative Case. 1 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are subjects of verbs : — 

1. Roger Williams founded Providence. 

2. Being is better than seeming. 

3. Jefferson was elected president by the House of 
Representatives. 

4. Darwin was a great naturalist. 

Subject 97 - The subject of the verb is in the nominative 
Nominative, case and is called the subject nominative. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are predicate nouns : — 

1. Carbon is the chief element of charcoal. 

2. Jupiter is the largest planet. 

3. The Indians are the wards of the nation. 

Predicate 98 - A predicate noun (see 38) is in the same 
Nominative, case as the subject of its verb, and when in the 
nominative is called the predicate nominative. 

Name the subject and predicate nominatives in the 
following sentences : — 

1 See Notes for Teachers, 4. 



NOUNS. 79 

1. Shakespeare is an intellectual miracle. — Chalmers. 

2. True wisdom is the price of happiness. — Young. 

3. Action is the true joy of the soul. — Gay. 

4. Occupation alone is happiness. — Johnson. 

5. Brisk talkers are generally slow thinkers. — Swift. 

6. Absence of occupation is not rest. — Cowper. 

7. The eye is the only true notebook of the poet. 

— Lowell. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are placed after nouns to add clefiniteness 
to the meaning of these nouns : — 

1. Napoleon, the Emperor, died at St. Helena. 

2. Harvey, a physician, discovered the circulation of the 
blood. 

3. The glory of Greece is Plato, the philosopher. 

99. A noun placed after another noun to describe 

or to add definiteness to the meaning of that noun pp0S1 lve ' 
is called an appositive. 

Appositive is from the Latin appositus — placed after 
or joined to. 

100. An appositive is in the same case as the 

noun whose meaning it defines, and when in the Appositive 
nominative is called the appositive nominative. Nominative. 

Name the subject, predicate, and appositive nomina- 
tives in the following sentences: — 

1. A noble deed is a step toward heaven. — Holland. 

2. Faith is power, the material of effect. — Parkhurst. 

3. The essence of friendship is entireness, a total mag- 
nanimity and trust. — Emerson. 

4. Virtue is its own reward. — Gay. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The monarch oak, the patriarch of trees, 

Shoots rising up, and spreads by slow degrees. 

— Dryden. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are grammatically separated from the rest 
of their sentences. 

Note that they are used as names of persons or things 
addressed : — 

1. Comrades, let us strive to do our best. 

2. Remember, John, that a rolling stone gathers no moss. 

3. Come, my brave fellows, let us do or die. 

4. My mountain home, I love thee ! 

5. Tell us, mighty obelisk, what you have seen. 

Vocative 101. The name of a person or thing addressed is 
Nominative. m the nominative case and is called the vocative 
nominative. 

Vocative is from the Latin vocativus — of calling or 
addressing. 

Name the vocative nominatives in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Brother, brother, we are both in the wrong. — Qay. 

2. These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good. 

— MUton. 

3. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. — Longfellow. 

4. Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber ; 
Holy angels guard thy bed! — Isaac Watts. 

Note that each of the nouns in full-faced type in the 
following sentences is modified by a participle. 

Note that the noun, participle, and their modifiers 
are separated or cut off from close grammatical relations 
with the rest of the sentence. 



NOUNS. 81 

Note that these cut off or absolute constructions are 
used for adverbial clauses. 

1. The noon bell having struck, we hastened home. 

2. The season having been wet, the crops are poor. 

3. The ships being in sight, curiosity possessed us. 

4. All things looked bright, the sun shining. 

5. The army advanced, a trail having been discovered. 

6. The ground being wet, we concluded that it had rained. 

102. A noun which, with a participle, is sepa- , T ... 

' _ . . Nominative 

rated from close grammatical relations with the Absolute. 

rest of the sentence, but which is used to express 
ideas additional to the sentence, is in the nomina- 
tive case and is called the nominative absolute. 

Absolute is from the Latin absolutus — set free. 
Expand the foregoing absolute constructions into 
their equivalent adverbial clauses. 

Name the nouns in the nominative case in the follow- 
ing sentence, and state the kind of nominative in each 
case : — 

Fellow citizens, delay having failed, patience no longer 
seems a virtue, a thing to be desired, but has come to be a 
vice, a thing undesirable. 

From the foregoing uses of the nominative case we 
have the following summarized definition :• — ■ 

103. The case of a noun that is used to denote >T . . 

. . . -Nominative 

the relation <>l a subject to a verb, or m agreement Case. 
the predicate or appositive relation, or in indepen- 
dent constructions the case of address or the case 
it) isolate, is called the nominative case. 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Analyze the following sentences, name the noons in 
these sentences, and give special use of each noun in the 
nominative case : — 



Our flag, the hope of the world, must he respected. 
My friends, this day has been a delight. 
The city was London, the capital of England. 
Citizens, we must be men of decision. 
The sun having risen, the travelers proceeded on their 
journey. 

Note how the analysis of foregoing sentences is ex- 
pressed in the following diagrams. 

Note especially the form of diagram used to express 
the different nominative case relations : — 



flag | must be respected | 



Our | 
hope 



the 



of 



world 



the | 



2 friends 

day | has been / delight | 



this | 



3. city | was / London 



The 



capital 



the | 



of | England 



NOUNS. 



83 



4. Citizens 

we | must be / men 



of | decision | 



5. travelers | proceeded 



the 



on | journey | 



their | 



The | having risen | 



Analyze the following sentences, and express the 
analysis by diagram according to forms given : — 

1. Come, Death, and snatch us from disgrace. — Bulwer. 

2. The supper being over, the strangers requested to be 
shown to their places of repose. — Haiothorne. 

3. Method is the arithmetic of success. — Shaw. 

4. Come, Nero, thou awful Roman emperor, seek your 
equal here. — Parker. 

5. The next day being Sunday, and the new church not 
yet being opened, he kept his room. — Allen. 

6. Principle is a passion for truth. — Hazlitt. 

7. Flow gently, sweet Afton, disturb not her dream. 

— Burns. 

8. The river being frozen over, they were obliged to 
perform the journey by land in the depths of winter. 

— Irving. 

9. Disease is the retribution of outraged nature. 

— BaOou. 
10. Adieu! Sir Walter, pride of all Scotchmen, take our 

proud and sail farewell.— Carlyle. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Money, Paul, can do anything. — Dickens. 

12. See deep enough and you see musically, the heart of 
nature being everywhere music, if you can only reach it. 

— Carlyle. 

Objective Case. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are used as objects of verbs : — 

1. Some bees gather honey. 

2. General Wolfe defeated General Montcalm at Quebec. 

3. General Grant treated his opponents with respect. 

4. Lightning destroyed the tower. 

104. A noun used to denote the relation of the 
Object °bj ec t of a verb ( see 34 ) i s m the objective case, 
Objective, and is called the direct object objective. 

Construct or select ten additional sentences illustrat- 
ing the direct object objective. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences designate the objects indirectly affected 
by the action expressed by the verb : — 

1. They promised my brother a castle in Spain. 

2. The authorities gave the general the freedom of the 
city. 

3. He told his father the story. 

4. He loaned the school many books. 

Indirect 105. A noun used to denote the relation of an 

Object object indirectly affected by the action expressed 

Objective. . J , . , . \ ,, , ... i • n j 

by the verb is in the objective case, and is called 

an indirect object objective. 



NOUNS. 85 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are used with prepositions : — 

1. Health is the creator of happiness. 

2. Three hundred Greeks fell at Thermopylae. 

3. The American continent has the longest rivers in the 
world. 

106. A noun used with a preposition is in the ,, 

1 L Preposi- 

objective case and is called the prepositional ob- tional 
jective. Objective. 

Name the nouns in the objective case in the follow- 
ing sentences and state the kind of objective in each 

case : — 

1. Truth needs no flowers of speech. — Pope. 

2. Poetry is the breath of beauty. — Hunt. 

3. I built my soul a lordly pleasure house. — Tennyson. 

4. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death. 

— Young. 

5. The Lord's Prayer contains the sum total of religion 
and morals. — Wellington. 

6. Simple duty hath no place for fear. — Whittier. 

7. Manners carry the world for the moment ; character, 
for all time. — Alcott. 

Note that each of the transitive verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences takes an infinitive phrase as an object. 
Note that each infinitive has a noun used with it as 

a subject : — 



1. The general ordered 



2. All Troy believed 



the enemy I to be dislodged. 



the Greeks ! to have sailed. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. He will not suffer | thy foot | to be moved. 



4. The soldiers knew 



the stranger | to be / a spy. 



Subject 107. The subject of an infinitive is in the objec- 
Objective. t,i ve case an( j i s called the subject objective. 

108. The infinitive with a subject is equivalent 
to a noun clause generally introduced }jy the word 

that ; as, — 

double rations to be issued. 

that double rations should be issued. 



The captain required 



Change the infinitives with subjects in the foregoing 
sentences into their equivalent noun clauses. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are predicate nouns : — 

1. History will acknowledge Hobson to be a hero. 

2. The world expects America to be the home of the dis- 
tressed. 

3. Nearly all concede Napoleon to be the greatest general 
of modern times. 

Predicate 109- ^ predicate noun is in the same case as the 
Objective, subject of its verb, and when in the objective is 
called the predicate objective. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are in apposition with the nouns which 
they follow: — 



NOUN'S. 87 

1. Paul was born in Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. 

2. Rugby honors Arnold, the great teacher. 

3. Massachusetts loved Whittie\, the Quaker poet. 

110. An appositive is in the same case as the Appositive 
noun whose meaning it defines, and when in the Objective, 
objective, is called the appositive objective. 

Name the nouns in the objective case in the following 
sentences, and state the kind of objective in each case : — 

1. Night is the dark stem of the lily, Day. — Loivell. 

2. The continent will not suffer England to be the work- 
shop of the world. — Beaconsfiehl. 

3. Man should always feel himself too great to be a 
slave. — (Manning. 

4. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, 
safety. — Shakespeare. 

5. I hold that gentleman to be the best dressed whose 
dress no one observes. — Trollope. 

6. A wise man knows himself to be a fool. — Shakespeare. 

Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- 
ing sentences are used to denote adverbial relations: — 

1. The war lasted seven years. (How long?) 

2. That book is worth two dollars. (How much?) 

3. He weighed two hundred pounds. (How much ? ) 

4. All were happy that afternoon. (When ?) 

5. The soldiers returned home. (Whither ? ) 

6. The ship sailed twenty miles. (How far ? ) 

7. The farm measured one hundred acres. (How much ?) 

111. A noun used to express an adverbial rela- Adverbial 
tion is in the objective case, and is called the Objective. 
adverbial objective. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Name the nouns in the objective case in the following 
sentence, and state the kind of objective in each cast': — 

Last evening the society voted Jones, its most gifted 
member, a resolution of thanks, because in his writings lie 

had recognized the society to be a mighty power in public 
education. 

From the foregoing uses of the objective case we 
have the following summarized definition: — 

Objective 112- ^he case °^ a noun that ^ s usec ^ *° denote 
Case. the relation of an object to a verb, or the relation 
of a subject to an infinitive, or in agreement the 
predicate or appositive relation, or that is used with 
a preposition, or to denote the expression of adverb- 
ial relations, is called the objective case. 

Analyze the following sentences, name the nouns, 
and give the especial use of each noun in the objective 
case : — 

1. Time brings students many opportunities. 

2. Patriotism requires the citizen to be a man. 

3. The lamp of life does not burn many years. 

4. Truth will come home at last. 

5. Pandora saved hope, the parent of faith. 

Note how the analysis of the foregoing sentences is 
expressed in the following diagrams. 

Note especially the form of diagram used to express 
the different relations of the objective case. 

1. Time | brings | opportunities | 

uianyj - 




NOUNS. 



89 



2. Patriotism | requires citizen | to be / man | 



the 



3. lamp 




1 


does burn 


The 


of 


life 


not | years 




many 



4. Truth | 



will come 



home 
at | last | 



5. Pandora | saved | hope ] 
parent | 



the 



of I faith 



Analyze the following sentences and express the 
analysis by diagram according to forms given : — 

1. Gravestones tell truth scarce forty years. — Broicne. 

2. To be seventy years young is sometimes far more 
cheerful than to be forty years old. — Holmes. 

3. Thus when I seek Scylla, your father, I fall into 
Charybdis, your mother. — Shakespeare. 

4. A wise man will find us to be rogues by our faces. 

— Swift. 

5. I awoke one morning and found myself famous. 

— Byron. 
C>. I would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be a 
prodigy of learning. — Sheridan. 

7. Let his tormentor, conscience, find him out. — Milton. 

8. Homer, thy s<>n^ men Liken t" ill" aea 

"With all the notes of music in its tone. — Lang. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. I take all knowledge to be my province. — Bacon. 

10. I have not wept these forty years. — Dryden. 

11. Every aster in my hand 

Goes home loaded with a thought. — Emersoh. 

12. The ugliest of trades have their moments of pleas- 
ure. — Jerrold. 

Possessive Case. 

Note that the words in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing expressions are used to denote the possessor 
or the person concerned in some way with the thing 
possessed. 

1. A bird's wing. 

2. My brother's house. 

3. Motley's histories. 

4. Washington's birthday. 

5. LongfeUow's Excelsior. 

113. The case of a noun used to denote owner- 
ship, authorship, or similar relations, is called the 
possessive case. 

Possessive is from the Latin possessions — indicating 
possession. 

Note in the foregoing forms that the possessive case 
has characteristic endings. 

In the old English forms the possessive endings were 
is, ys, and es (in German es is still used as a possessive 
ending). 

In the present possessive ending the final 8 of the old 
endings is retained, and the omission of the preceding 
vowel is indicated by the sign of the apostrophe (') 
(a mark denoting the omission of one or more letters in 
a word). 



NOUNS. 91 

Observe the typical forms in full-faced type in the 
following sentences, and note that the possessive case is 
formed by affixing s preceded by an apostrophe to the 
nominative. 

1. The mother's heart is the child's schoolroom. — Beecher. 

2. Men's vows are women's traitors ! — Shakespeare. 

Observe the typical forms in full-faced type in the 
following sentences, and note that when the nominative 
plural ends in a hissing sound the apostrophe alone is 
affixed as the possessive ending. 

1. It is the hour when lovers' vows 

Seem sweet in every whispered word. — Byron. 

2. Like Angels' visits, short and bright ; 
Mortality's too weak to bear them long. — Nbrris. 

Some writers use the apostrophe alone as an affix to 
the nominative to form the possessive singular, under 
one or both of the following conditions : — 

1. When the nominative singular ends and the next 
word begins with a hissing sound. 

2. When the nominative singular is a word of more 
than two syllables and ends with a hissing sound ; as, — 

1. For shortness' sake, I will call it the idea of freedom. 

-^Parker. 

2. It was Lazarus' faith and not his poverty which 
brought him into Abraham's bosom. — Trench. 

3. A Damocles' sword of respectability hangs forever 
over the poor, English life writer. — Carlyle. 

Observe the typical forms in the following sentences, 
and note that in compound words or expressions the 
possessive ending is affixed to the last word. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Like mountain eat who guards her young, 
Full at Fitz-James's throat he sprung. — Scott. 

2. It sent them with great good humor into Mrs. Penden- 
nis's drawing room. — Thackeray. 

3. But the grandsire's chair is empty, 
The cottage is dark and still. — Winter. 

Observe the typical possessive forms in the following 
sentences, and note that when connected words denote 

separate possession, the possessive ending is affixed to 
each word : — 

1. The grocers', butchers', and fruiterers' shops were 
thronged with customers. — Irving. 

2. They spoke with far more interest and miction and 
emotion of their morning's breakfast, or yesterday's, to-day's, 
or to-morrows's dinner, than of the shipwreck of forty or 
fifty years ago. — Hawthorne. 

Modern typography is gradually dropping the apos- 
trophe in suc'h expressions as the Regents examination, 
a teachers association, etc. 

Observe typical possessive constructions in the fol- 
lowing sentences, and note that a noun in the possessive 
case may be used without its modifying noun when 
such noun can readily be inferred or supplied from the 
context. 

1. I shed no tears at my own wedding, but I did at 
Flora's. — Curtis. 

2. St. Paul's is on a scale of grandeur excelling anything 
I have seen. — Taylor. 

3. The mind is this world's, but the soul is God's. 

The preposition of with the objective ease is used to 
denote possession. 



NOUNS. 93 

114. Note from examples in the following sentences 
that a construction in the form of a double possessive 
has received the sanction of good authority : — 

1. This . . . did to an unusual degree disclose itself in 
these rhymed romances of Scott's. — Carlyle. 

2. Mr. Bourne, the millionaire, was an old lover of 
Prue's. — Curtis. 

3. Rights are grand things, divine things, in this world 
of God's. — Robertson. 

4. Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences of Caesar's 
can have come down to us. — Fronde. 

115. In early English the possessive case quite 
generally followed the uses of the Anglo-Saxon 
genitive case, which expressed not only possession 
and similar relations, but also was used to express 
source, fitness, time, etc. This gave the possessive 
case a variety of uses, some of which remain cur- 
rent in such expressions as, the earth's axis, a 
stone's throw, a nine days' wonder. In modern 
usage the possessive case is quite generally re- 
stricted to nouns used as names of individuals, 
animals, and things personified. 

Change the following possessive phrases to corre- 
sponding possessive noun forms : — 

1. The tomb of Grant. 

2. The rays of Phoebus. 

3. The style of Dickens. 

4. The tragedies of Euripides. 

5. The war of the Normans and Saxons. 

G. The homes of Longfellow, W'hittier, Holmes, and 
Emerson. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The laws of God and Nature. 

8. The haunts of the elephant, lion, and tiger. 

9. The searchings of science. 

10. The speed of the horse. 

11. The stupidity of the ass. 

12. The reign of George the Fourth. 

13. The cathedrals of St. Peter and St. Paid. 

Name the class, the gender, the number, and the case 
of each noun in the following sentences, and explain 
the possessive form : — 

1. Gossip is a sort of smoke that comes from the dirty- 
tobacco pipes of those who diffuse it ; it proves nothing but 
the bad taste of the smoker. — Eliot. 

2. A greater autobiography than Edward Gibbon's is 
our own Benjamin Franklin's. — Brooks. 

3. Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to 
sweeten my imagination. — Shakespeare. 

4. Be a reader, getting all the information you can, 
and every fresh information Avill paint some commonplace 
article for you with brightness. — Hunt. 

5. Let all the ends thou aimst at be thy country's, thy 
God's, and truth's. — ShaJiesjware. 

6. Anger is like a full, hot horse, who, being allowed 
his way, self-mettle tires him. — Id. 

7. On Friday evening I dined at Mr. T. B. Reade's, the 
poet and artist, with a party composed of painters and 
sculptors. — Hawthorne. 

8. There was reason for these Xerxes' tears. — Emerson. 

9. Then shall man's pride and dullness comprehend 
His actions', passions', being's use and end. — Pope. 

10. The Bruce's heart was buried below the high altar 
in Melrose Abbey. — Scott. 

11. Necessity, my friend, is the mother of courage as of 
invention. — Id. 



NOUNS. 95 

12. Books, like men, their authors, have no more than 
one way of coining into the world. — Swift. 

13. My dear, your everlasting blue velvet quite tires 
me. — Thackeray. 

14. Here's a health to the glowworm, 
Death's sober lamplighter. — Meredith. 

15. A good man's character is the world's common 
legacy. — Whittier. 

16. Everything is twice as large measured on a three- 
year-old's three-foot scale as on a thirty-year-old's six-foot 
scale. — Holmes. 

17. Where go the poet's lines ? 
Answer, ye evening tapers ! 

Ye auburn locks, ye golden curls, 
Speak from your folded papers. — Id. 

E. INFLECTION AND DECLENSION. 

We have seen that the same word may express 
different properties and relations by means of internal 
changes or variable endings. 

116. The variation in the form of the word to 
indicate its properties and grammatical relations in 
the sentence is called inflection. 

Inflection is from the Latin inflect ere — to bend or 
vary from a direct course. 

The English language has but few inflected forms. 

The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declen- 
sion. In a technical sense there is no declension of nouns 
in English and only a partial declension of pronouns. 

The declension of nouns and pronouns in English 
has come to be regarded as simply the form of the ikuui 
or pronoun in the nominative, possessive, and objective 
cases in the singular and plural numbers. 



Inflection. 



96 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Declension. 117. In a true sense declension is the deviation 
of a noun or pronoun from its unit form and its 
variations to indicate its properties and grammat- 
ical relations in the sentence. 

Declension is from the Latin declinatlo — a bending 
aside or deviating from. 

Note the declension of the nouns, man and boy. 



Singular, 

nom. poss. obj. 

man man's man 

boy boy's boy 



Plural. 

nom. poss. obj. 



boys boys' 



boys 



Construc- 
tion of a 
Sentence. 



Parsing. 



F. CONSTRUCTION AND PARSING. 

We have learned the elements of a grammatical 
sentence and that these elements are built up into 
sentences, or bound together into a sentence by certain 
relations. 

118. The way that a sentence is built up or con- 
structed is called the construction of a sentence. 

Construction is from the Latin eonstructio — a putting 
together. 

The different ways that sentences are built up are 
the different constructions of sentences. 

While parts of speech are sentence elements, they are 
also units with regard to the different ways that they 
are used with one another in sentence construction. 

The resolving of a sentence into its elements is 
analysis. 

119. The resolving of the elements into their 
kinds, forms, uses, and relations is called parsing. 



NOUNS. 



97 



Parse is from the Latin pars — a part. 
We are now prepared to parse a noun. 
To parse a noun is to answer the following questions 
regarding it : — 

1. What kind of noun is it ? 

2. What gender, if any, has it ? 

3. What number does it express ? 

4. What is its relation in the sentence construction ? 

Parse the sentence, 

"Washington taught truthfulness." 



Washington 



tamrht 



truthfulness 



is a word used as a name, hence a 

is a noun not belonging to a 
class, hence a 

is used to refer to male sex, 
hence, 

is used to refer to a single indi- 
vidual, hence, 

is used as subject of verb, taught, 
hence, 

is a word used to express what 
Washington does, hence a 

is a word used as a name, hence a 

is a noun used as the name be- 
longing to a class, hence a 

is a common noun used as the 
name of a quality, hence an 

is not used to refer to sex, hence 

is used to denote an individual 

thing, hence, 
is used as object of verb taught, 

hence, 



proper 
noun. 

masculine 
gender. 

singular 
number. 

nomina- 
tive case. 

verb, 
noun, 
common 

noun. 
abstract 

noun. 
a neuter 

noun. 
singula! 

number 
objective 

case. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parsing Summary. 

Washington is a proper noun, masculine gender, 
singular number, nominative ease, subject nominative 
of verb, tau ■(/lit. 

Truthfulness is a common, abstract, neuter noun, 
singular number and objective case, direct object objec- 
tive of verb, taught. 

Analyze the following sentences, express the analysis 
by diagram, and parse each noun: — 

1. Much wisdom often goes with fewest words. 

2. Excess of duty speaks a lack of mind. 

3. A flock of geese saved Rome. 

4. Camoens is Portugal's greatest poet. 

5. Excess weakens the spirits. 

6. Hope is a waking man's dream. 

7. Perseverance kills the game. 

8. Toleration is the best religion. 

9. Landscapes are Nature's pictures. 
10. All our dignity lies in our thoughts. 

G. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

A common noun is a noun that is used as the 
name of a class, or the name shared by individuals 
of a class. 

A collective noun is a common noun that is the 
name of a group of similar objects. 

An abstract noun is a common noun thai is the 
name of an action, a quality or a state of action. 

A proper noun is a noun that is used as the name 
of an individual object not belonging to a class. 

Gender is the grammatical distinction between 



NOUNS. 99 

the names of animals or living things by reference 
to sex. 

The masculine gender is the gender that desig- 
nates a noun as the name of an animal of the male 
sex. 

The feminine gender is the gender that designates 
a noun as the name of an animal of the female sex. 

The common gender is the gender that designates 
a noun as the name alike of both sexes. 

Number is that property of a noun which indi- 
cates whether one or more than one object is 
designated. 

The singular number is the number that indi- 
cates that one object is designated. 

The plural number is the number that indicates 
that more than one object is designated. 

Case is that property or use of a noun that 
denotes its relation to other words in the sentence. 

The subject nominative is the nominative case 
used to denote the relation of a subject to its verb. 

The predicate nominative is the nominative case 
used to denote the relation of a predicate noun to 
its verb. 

The appositive nominative is the nominative case 
used to denote the relation of an appositive to 
another noun in the nominative. 

The vocative nominative is the nominative case 
used to denote the relation of the person or thing 
addressed. 



LofC. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The nominative absolute is the nominative case 
used in absolute constructions. 

The direct object objective is the objective case 
used to denote the relation of an object to a tran- 
sitive verb. 

The indirect object objective is the objective case 
used to denote the relation of the object indirectly 
affected by the action that the verb is used to 
express. 

The prepositional objective is the objective case 
used with a preposition to denote various rela- 
tions. 

The subject objective is the objective case used 
to express the relation of a subject to an infinitive. 

The predicate objective is the objective case used 
to denote the relation of a predicate noun to an 
infinitive with the subject objective. 

The appositive objective is the objective case 
used to denote the relation of an appositive to 
another noun in the objective case. 

The adverbial objective is the objective case used 
to denote adverbial relations. 

The possessive case is the case that is used to 
denote the relation of ownership, authorship, or 
similar relations to the object designated. 

The construction of a sentence is the way a sen- 
tence is built up or constructed. 

Parsing is the resolving of the elements of a 
sentence into their kinds, forms, uses, and relations. 



NOUNS. 101 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS, THEIR 
PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS. 



I. Classes. 


II. 


Gender. 


1. Proper. 




1. Masculine. 


2. Common. 




2. Feminine. 


a. Collective. 




3. Common 


b. Abstract. 




(Neuter nouns) 


III. Number. 






1. Singular. 






2. Plural. 






IV. Case. 






1. Nominative. 







2. In agreement. 

a. By predication (Predicate nominative). 

b. In apposition (Appositive nominative). 

3. In independent relations. 

a. By address (Vocative nominative). 

b. In absolute constructions 

(Nominative absolute). 

2. Possessive. 

3. Objective. 

1. As object. 

a. Direct (Direct object objective). 

b. Indirect (Indirect object objective). 

2. With preposition (Prepositional objective). 

3. As subject of infinitive (Subject objective). 

4. In agreement. 

a. By predication (Predicate objective). 

b. In apposition (Appositive objective). 

5. In adverbial relations (Adverbial objective |. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



II. PRONOUNS. 



1 A pronoun is a reference word used to represent 
some person or thing. (Review 42-44.) 

Inasmuch as nouns and pronouns axe used to desig- 
nate the same persons or things, a pronoun may refer 
to a noun to obtain through it definiteness of meaning. 

Note the nouns to which pronouns refer in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

1. Heaven never helps the men who will not act. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. Knowledge cannot be stolen from ns. It cannot be 
bought or sold. — Burritt. 

3. Thy wife is a constellation of virtues. She's the 
moon, and thou art the man in the moon. — Congn m . 

4. The hooded clouds, like friars, 

Tell their beads in drops of rain. — Longfellow. 

. . , 120. The noun to which a pronoun refers for 

Antecedent. . ... 

definiteness of meaning is called its antecedent. 

121. The antecedent of a pronoun is a noun or 
equivalent expression used either to name or desig- 
nate the person or thing to which the pronoun 
refers. 

122. Pronouns are used to distinguish gender, 
number, person, and case. While in nouns the 
distinguishing of gender, number, and case is 
largely a matter of classification, in pronouns 

1 See Notes for Teachers, 5. 



PRONOUNS. 



103 



gender, number, and case are most commonly 
designated by separate forms. 

A. PERSONAL AND NEUTER PRONOUNS. 1 

Simple Personal and Neuter Pronouns. 

Note that tlie pronouns in full-faced type in the 
following sentences are used to designate persons as 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken about : — 

1. I mean to stand upon the Constitution. I need no 
other platform. — Webster. 

2. He that has lost his faith, what staff has he left ? 

— Bacon. 

3. Experience converts us to ourselves when books fail 
us. — Alcott. 

4. If thou art rich, thou art poor. — Shakespeare. 

123. That property of pronouns which, is used 
to designate a person as speaking, spoken to, or 
spoken about, is called person. 

124. Pronouns that by their form are used to 
distinguish or designate the different relations of Pronouns, 
person are called personal pronouns. 

Personal is from the Latin personalis — personal or 
individual. 

Note that the personal pronoun, /, in sentence (1), 
is used to refer to a person as speaking. 

Note that the personal pronoun, we, in sentence (2), 
is used to refer to a person as speaking of himself and 
others. 

1. i preached as never sure to preach again. — Baxter. 

L'. "Pis swci't to think where'er we roam 

We an' sure to liml something blissful ami dear. 

— Moore. 

1 Sic Nuits tor Teachers. •'>. 



Person. 



Personal 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



First 
Person. 



Second 
Person. 



125. A personal pronoun used to refer to a 
person as speaking of himself, or of himself and 
others, is called a personal pronoun of the first 
person. 

Note that the personal pronouns, thou, you, and ye, 
in the following sentences are used to refer to persons 
spoken to and spoken about. 

1. Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend. — Pope. 

2. You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will, 
But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. 

— Moore. 

3. Ye may trace my steps in the waking earth. — Hemans. 

126. A personal pronoun used to refer to a per- 
son as spoken to, and at the same time spoken 
about, is called a personal pronoun of the second 
person. 



Third 
Person. 



Note that the personal pronouns, he, she, and they, 
in the following sentences are used to refer to persons 
spoken about, without at the same time speaking to 
them. 

1. He was ever precise in promise keeping. — Shakespeare. 

2. She is not made to be the admiration of everybody. 

— Burke 

3. What persons are by starts, they are by nature. 

— Sterne. 

121. A personal pronoun used to refer to a per- 
son as spoken about, but not at the same time 
spoken to, is called a personal pronoun of the third 
person. 



PRONOUNS. 105 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. Plural, 

nom. poss. obj. nom. poss. obj. 

_ ( mine ( our 



II. 



X -\ 111C we 

(my (. ours 

j Th0U ithy ne thee ye I yol you 

I You j y0Ur you you jy° U1 " you 

I (yours J J (yours J 



(He his him (their 

IIL She ]|- to ^ i«-i- 

( ( hers 

1 The neuter pronoun is declined as follows : — 



them 



It its it they \ ,, . them 

J ( theirs 

The neuter pronoun bears the same relation to per- 
sonal pronouns that a neuter noun does to gender nouns. 

All personal pronoun and neuter pronoun forms are 
derived from the Anglo-Saxon. 

Note in the foregoing declension that you and its in- 
flected forms are used in both the singular and plural 
numbers. In earlier English you was a plural pronoun, 
the objective case of ye. You now is used to refer to 
one or more than one person, but when used as a subject 
is followed by the plural verb form. 

TJiou and its forms, thy, thine, thee, and the plural 
form, ye, are sometimes called second personal pronouns 
of the "Old Form." 

These forms were at one time used in terms of inti- 
macy, superiority, or content, but now are used only in 
poetry and elevated forms of prose, as invocations, 
prayers, etc.; as, — 

1 See Notes for Teachers, 7. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll! 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. — Byron. 

2. Father, Thy hand 

Hath reared these venerable columns ; Thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof. — Bryant. 

3. Come, shade of Jeffreys, thou judicial butcher; for 
over two hundred years thy name has been pilloried on the 
face of the world and thy memory gibbeted before mankind. 

— Parker. 

4. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. 

— Knowles. 

5. If ye are brutes, then stand here like fat oxen waiting 
for the butcher's knife ; if ye are men, follow me. — Kellogg. 

The " Old Form," somewhat modified, is used to-day 
by the society of Friends or Quakers, who use thee as a 
subject and also an object form. 

Note in the foregoing declension that there are two 
pronoun forms in the third person, singular; he, the 
masculine gender pronoun, and she, the feminine gender 
pronoun. 

Note in the foregoing declension that the same form 
is used for the plural of the masculine and feminine 
genders of the third personal pronouns, and also for the 
plural of the neuter pronoun; hence, the definite mean- 
ing of they, their, theirs, and them can only hi- known 
through the medium of their antecedents; as, — 



1. If ladies be but young and fair. 

They have the gift to know it. — Shakespeare. 

2. Heroes, it would seem, exist always and a certain 
worship of them. — Carlyle. 

3. And shade tin 1 violets 

That they may bind the moss in leafy nets. — Keats, 



PRONOUNS. 107 

The neuter pronoun, it, is used in referring to an ,, 

inanimate object that has no sex distinction, or to 
an animate object when sex distinction is disregarded; 

as, — 

1. No star seemed less than what science taught us that 
it is. — Cooper. 

2. A simple child 
That lightly draws its breath, 
And feels its life in every limb, 

What should it know of death ? — Worclsivortli. 

My and thy are shortened forms of mine and thine. p 
Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are double possessive forms, 
forms, as they are constructed by possessive endings 
being affixed to the possessive forms, our, your, her, 
their; as, — 

Our -f- es = oures = our's = ours. 

Ours, yours, hers, theirs are used to express the pos- 
sessive relation without modifying nouns. 

Our, your, her, their, my, thy, are used to express pos- 
sessive relations with modifying nouns. 

Mine, thine, his, its, are used to express the possessive 
relation with or without modifying nouns. 

At one time mine and thine were used in any form 
of discourse before modifying nouns beginning with a 
vowel sound, but are now used only in poetry and im- 
passioned prose; as, — 

1. Mine eye shall see my desire on mine enemies. — Bible. 
-. Why, man, she is mine own. — Shakespeare. 
.'!. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the 
Lord. — Howe. 

4. I bade thee grasp that treasure as thine honor. 

— Bulwer. 



108 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

The neuter pronoun its is formed after the analogy 
of adding s to form the possessive. It is from the An- 
glo-Saxon, hit, the neuter, singular form of he. In 
early English both hit and it are used in nominative 
and objective case relations. 

Its did not come into use until the end of the six- 
teenth century. Previous to that time his (possessive 
of hit) and her were used to express relations afterward 
expressed by its ; as, — 

1. How far that little candle throws his beams. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. The tree of life which bare twelve manner of fruits, 
and yielded her fruit every mouth. — Bible. 

Masculine and feminine gender pronouns are some- 
times used to refer to inanimate things when such 
things are regarded as persons, for the sake of giving 
vividness in the expression of characteristics. 

Characteristics of beauty, delicacy, refinement, grace, 
and the like are regarded as womanly attributes ; hence 
the personal pronoun of the feminine gender ma\ be 
used to refer to any one of these attributes, and repre- 
sent it as a person of the female sex ; as, -— 

1. The daisy's cheek is tipp'd with a blush, 
She is of such low degree. — Hood. 

2. The moon pulled off her veil of light 

That hides her face by day from sight. — Butler. 

Characteristics of strength, ruggedness, power, and 
the like are regarded as manly attributes ; hence the 
personal pronoun of the masculine gender may be used 
to refer to any one of these attributes, and represent it 
as a person of the male sex ; as, — 



PRONOUNS. 109 

1. The rising sun complies with our weak sight, 
First gilds the clouds, then shows his globe of light. 

— Waller. 

2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak, 
Who hath ruled in the greenwood long; 

Here's health and renown to his broad green crown, 
And his fifty arms so strong. — Charley. 

The plural forms of the first personal pronoun are Number — 
frequently used to designate a single person as in the Special 
case of a speaker or writer representing many hearers Uses. 
or readers, especially in the case of editors of news- 
papers, or in the case of a sovereign representing all 
subjects ; as, — 

1. We would first speak of the Puritans, the most 
remarkable body of men perhaps which the world has ever 
produced. — Macaulay. 

2. We, Nicholas, Czar of all the Eussias, etc. 

The plural forms of the second and third personal 
pronouns are sometimes used without referring to any 
definite persons, but in referring to persons indefinitely ; 
as, — 

1. It is necessary in music when you strike a discord to 
let down the ear by an intermediate note or two to accord 
again. — Emerson. 

2. Labor, you know, is prayer. — Taylor. 

.3. Second thoughts, they say, are best. — Dryden. 
4. They say best men are molded out of faults. 

— Shakespeare. 

Besides the general uses of the neuter pronoun, it, « . . 
oilier uses are found. Uses of 

I. It is used impersonally, i.e. not referring to any it. 
known or definite thing ; as, — 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. Too like the lightning which doth cease to be 
Ere one can say "It lightens." — Shakespeare. 

2. How dull and how unbearable a beast 

Is man, who yet would lord it o'er the rest. — Dryden, 

3. Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it. — Irving. 

II. It is used in regular position of subject to antici- 
pate the real subject placed after the verb ; as, — 

1. It is your balance at the banker's which gives you such 
importance in the city. — Curtis. 

2. It needs a man to perceive a man. — Akott. 

3. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse 
■with superior minds. — Channimj. 

Verbs like meseems and methinlcs are in reality im- 
personal verbs with the indirect object objective me 
prefixed. Both verbs are equivalent in expression, 
viz., it seems to me. 
Idiomatic After analogy of nouns, personal pronouns in the 
Uses of the possessive case are used in nominative and objective 
Possessive case relations, and designate by their form the relation 
PrcTo °s °^ ^ ie P ossessor ' an( l by their use in the sentence the 
relation of the persons or things possessed. 

1. The world is his who can see through its pretense. 

— Emerson. 

2. Good-by, proud world, I'm going home; 

Thou art not my friend, and I'm not thine. — Id. 

3. Theirs not to make reply, 
Theirs not to reason why. 

Theirs but to do and die. — Tennyson. 

Personal pronouns in the possessive ease used to 
express possessive relations without modifying nouns, 
with the preposition of, form idiomatic phrases similar 



PRONOUNS. Ill 

to those formed with of and the possessive case of 
nouns (see 114) ; as, — 

1. Speak to these curious hearts of ours, 
And teach them to be still. — Alexander. 

2. Now Heaven bless that sweet face of thine. 

— Shakespeare. 

3. This earth of ours has been spinning about in space, 
the great philosophers tell us, some five hundred millions of 
years. — Motley. 

4. In this broad earth of ours . . . nestles the seed, per- 
fection. — Whitman. 

Compound Personal and Neuter Pronouns. 

128. The word, self, and its plural, selves, are 
added to some forms of the personal pronoun and 
form what are called compound personal pronouns. 

Singular. myself ) yourself ] himself herself 

Plural. ourselves ) yourselves ) themselves 

The singular, thyself, and ourself are sometimes used. 

129. After the analogy of personal pronouns 
compound neuter pronouns are formed; as, — 

Singular. itself 
Plural. themselves 

1. Mirth itself is too often but Melancholy in disguise. 

— ///////. 

2. Thoughts unexpressed may sometimes fall back dead, 
But God himself can't kill them when they're said. 

— ( 'arleton. 

3. Beauty itself is but the sensible image of the Infinite. 

— Bomcroft. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The fearful unbelief is the unbelief in yourself. 

— Carlyle. 

5. Himself is his only dungeon. — Milton. 

6. Bells call others, but themselves enter not into the 
church. — Herbert. 

Note that each of the compound personal or neuter 
pronouns in the foregoing sentences (1), (2), and (3) 
is used to emphasize or give intensity to that for which 
the noun stands. 

Note that each of the compound personal or neuter 
pronouns in foregoing sentences (4), (5), (6) is used 
to emphasize or give intensity to that which is repre- 
sented by a pronoun itself or in connection with a pro- 
noun implied. 

Emphatic or Intensive Pkonoun. 

130. A compound personal neuter pronoun, when 
used to emphasize or give intensity to that which 
is named by the noun, or that which is represented 
Pronoun, by the pronoun itself or in connection with a pro- 
noun implied, is called an emphatic or intensive 
pronoun. 

1. Make yourself necessary to somebody. — Em rson. 

2. Content thyself to be obscurely good. — Addison. 

3. What a poet says proves itself to our minds. — Lowell. 

4. Crimes generally punish themselves. — Goldsmith. 

Note that the compound personal and neuter pro- 
nouns in the foregoing sentences are used to refer 
to the same persons or things as the subjects of the 
verb. 



Intensive 



Eeflexive 



PRONOUNS. 113 



Eeflexive Pkonouns. 

131. A compound personal or neuter pronoun 
used to refer to the same person or thing as the 
subject of the verb of the sentence is called a Pronoun" 
reflexive pronoun. 

Name the intensive and reflexive pronouns in the 
following sentences : — 

1. We judge ourselves by what we are capable of doing. 

— Longfellow. 

2. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

— Emerson. 

3. He who would keep himself to himself shoidd imi- 
tate the dumb animals and dumb water. — Lytton. 

4. A dream itself is but the shadow. — Shakespeare. 

5. I have some wounds upon me, and they smart to hear 
themselves remembered. — Id. 

6. Men of age . . . content themselves with a medioc- 
rity of success. — Bacon. 

7. At last they steal us from ourselves away. — Pope. 

8. They who are pleased themselves must always please 

— Thomson. 

9. Shake off this downy sleep, death's counterfeit, and 
look on death itself. — Shakespeare. 

10. I have myself to respect, but to myself I am not 
amiable, but my friend is my amiableness personified. 

— Thoreau. 

1 1. The first great work is that yourself may to yourself 
be true. — Roscommon. 

Name the personal, neuter, intensive, and reflexive 

pronouns in the following sentences, and parse each 
pronoun: — 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Our necessities never equal our wants. — Franklin. 

2. Kindness itself is the best of all truths. — Hunt. 

3. They say women and music should never be dated. 

— Goldsmith. 

4. He loves his old, hereditary trees. — Cowley. 

5. They always talk who never think. — Prior. 

6. Such was the Lowell whom I and mine knew and 
loved. — Stephen. 

7. Monuments themselves memorials make. — Crabbe. 

8. Thou art an elm, my husband; I, a vino. — Shah spt are. 

9. Yours is the greater treason, for yours is the treason 
of friendship. — Longfellow. 

10. This life of ours is a wild seolian harp of many a 
joyous strain. — Id. 

11. No really great man ever thought himself so. 

— Emerson. 

12. I look xipon a library as a mental chemist's simp. 

— Holmes. 

13. My meaning in saying he is a good man is to have 
you understand me that he is sufficient. — Shakespeare. 

14. The path of nature is indeed a narrow one, and it is 
only the immortals that seek it. — Lowell. 

15. We trust nature, our fellows, and even God himself 
because we are obliged to. — Holland. 

16. Even the sun veils himself in his own rays to blind 
the gaze of the too curious starer. — Alcott. 

17. You have no business with consequences. You are 
to tell the truth. — Johnson. 

18. Would you hurt a woman worst? Aim at her 
affections. — Wallace. 

19. We know through conscience that we must answer 
for what we are and for what we do to a power outside 
of us. — Cook. 

20. Would 3'ou know how firsl he met her? 

She was cutting bread and butter. — Thackeray. 



PRONOUNS. 115 

21. I would rather make my name than inherit it. — Id. 

22. Obedience completes itself in understanding. — Brooks. 

23. If you read a poet's masterpieces, you know them. 
If you have read everything which he has written, you 
know him. — Id. 

24. It is mind after all which does the work of the 
world. — Channing. 

25. The thunder, 

Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage, 
Perhaps hath spent his shafts. — Milton. 

26. Or if Nature feeble were, 
Heaven itself would stoop to her. — Id. 

27. The king himself has followed her — ■ 
When she has walked before. — Goldsmith. 

28. It is noble to seek truth, and it is beautiful to find 
it. — Smith. 

29. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. — Perry. 

30. Poetry is a jealous mistress ; she demands life, wor- 
ship, tact, the devotion of our highest faculties. — Stedman. 

31. Write it on your hearts that every day is the best 
day of the year. — Emerson. 

32. They that govern make the least noise. — Selden. 

33. Ye little stars ! hide your diminished rays. — Pope. 

34. Methinks, with his heavy heart and weary brain, 
Time should himself be glad to die. — Hawthorne. 

35. What would the rose with all her pride be worth 
Were there no sun to call her brightness forth ? 

— Moore. 

B. DEMONSTUATIVE PRONOUN. 

Note that this, that, these, those, in the following sen- 
tences are pronouns, and are used to point out or direct 

attention to the objects to wliieh they refer. 

1. This is no tit, place for you and me. This is a place 
they are bound to watch. — Stevenson. 



Demonstra 
tive 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Those who have known grief seldom seem sad. 

— Beaconsfield. 

3. They had few books, but these were of the best. 

— Lowell 

4. We work, and that is godlike. — Holland. 

132. A pronoun that is used to direct attention 
to that which it represents is called a demonstra- 
Prononn. tive pronoun. 

Demonstrative is from the Latin demonstratus — 
pointed out or shown. 

The demonstrative pronouns are this, plural these, 
and that, plural those. 

This is used to direct attention to a person or thing 
near at hand or near in thought. 

That is used to direct attention to a person or thing 
more remote in position or in thought. 

This refers to the nearer antecedent in the sentence ; 
that to the antecedent more remote ; as : — 

1. Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, 

Those call it pleasure; and contentment, these. — Pope. 

2. Farewell, my friends ; farewell, my foes ; 

My peace with these, my love with those. — Bums. 

Demonstrative pronouns are used alone, or are used 
with their antecedents with the force of adjectives. 

Name each demonstrative pronoun in the Eollowing 
sentences ; tell whether it is used alone or with its 
antecedent, and explain whether it expresses a near or 
a remote relation : — 

1. That life is long which answers life's great end. 

— Young. 



PRONOUNS. 117 

2. These are no more his moods than are those of re- 
ligion and philosophy. — Emerson. 

3. In this fool's paradise he drank delight. — Crabbe. 

4. These little things are great to a little man. 

— Goldsmith. 

5. To-morrow is that lamp upon the marsh which a 
traveler never reaches. — Tupper. 

6. This is my birthday, and a happier one was never 
mine. — Longfellow. 

7. By those who look close to the ground dirt will be 
seen. — Johnson. 

8. This is a reading and a thinking age. — Phillips. 

9. That is the bitterest of all — to wear the yoke of 
our own wrongdoing. — Eliot. 

10. Has not God borne with you these many years ? 

— Ballou. 

11. Those families, you know, are our upper crust. 

— Cooper. 

12. The power of perception is that which we call under- 
standing. — Locke. 



C. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

Simple Indefinite Pkonouns. 

Note that the words in full-faced t}-pe in the fol- 
lowing sentences are pronouns, for they are used to 
refer to persons or things without naming them. 

1. All would live long, but none would be old. — Johnson. 

2. Each shall give us a grain of gold after the washing. 

— Eiui -rstni. 

3. Blessed be agriculture ! if one does not have too 
much of it. — Warner. 

4. I would help others out of a fellow-feeling. — Drydi n. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Note that these pronouns arc used to refer to any or 
to no specific person or thing, or to an indefinite quan- 
tity or number of persons or things. 

Indefinite 133 - A pronoun that is used to refer to any or 
Pronoun, to no specific person or thing, or to an indefinite 

quantity or number of persons or things, is called 

an indefinite pronoun. 

Indefinite is from the Latin indefinitus — not ex- 
plicit, vague. 

134. Some indefinite pronouns are used with 
their antecedents with the force of adjectives, and 
for that reason they are sometimes called adjective 
pronouns. 

The indefinite pronouns are more numerous than all 
the other pronouns, but the actual number of indefinite 
pronouns is a matter of opinion, for the dividing line 
between indefinite pronouns and substantive adjectives 
and nouns is not so clearly defined as to be generally 
accepted. 

The following are the more generally accepted in- 
definite pronouns : — 

One is from the old numeral, an, and as an indefinite 
pronoun is especially used for the word man (German, 
man), which is found in early English. It. takes tin- 
place of a third personal pronoun with indeterminate 
gender. As a pronoun it is inflected in both numbers, 
and with the force of an adjective is used with nouns 
in the singular number ; as, — 

1. One must be poor to know the luxury of giving. 

— Eliot. 



One. 



PRONOUNS. 119 

2. Long pains are light ones ; cruel ones are brief. — Saxe. 

3. To sit for one's portrait is like being present at one's 
own creation. — Smith. 

4. One on God's side is a majority. — Phillips. 

The tendency among careful writers is to use the 
possessive one's instead of his when used to express 
the idea of indeterminate gender. 

Other (the different one), another (one other), either Other, 

(one out of two), neither (not one out of two), can be Another, 

used in a technical sense only in referring to one of two „ lt r: er ' 
.,. , J , , , s , Neither. 

persons or things, or to one ot two classes of persons or 

things. 

Other means one separated from all others. 

Another means one added to the others. 

Either offers a choice of one or the other. 

Neither denies a choice of one or the other. 

135. Either and neither are sometimes called 
alternative pronouns. 

In its substantive use other is declined in both num- 
bers and with the force of an adjective is used with 
nouns in the singular or in the plural number ; as, — 

1. Avoid witticisms at the expense of others. — Mann. 

2. The way to find truth is by others' mistakes. — Selden. 

3. I was born to other things. — Tennyson. 

Another, either, neither, are declined in the singular 
number, and with force of adjectives are used with 
nouns in t he singular ; as, — 

1. Another's sword had laid him low. — Campbell. 

'_'. Either's heart did ache a little while with thought of 
the old daj s. — Morris. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The pastor was made to take his seat before the altar 
with two sacristans, one on either side. — Irving. 

4. Love made them not . . . where either party is not 
true nor kind. - 



AU. £& (every one of) is used both with a substantive 

and with an adjective force. As a substantive, refer- 
ring to persons, all is used in the plural. When referring 
to things it is used in the singular number. 

With an adjective force all is used with nouns in the 
singular or plural number ; as, — 

1. All are not taken. — Browning. 

2. What though the field is lost, all is not lost. — Milton. 

3. All haste implies weakness. — Mavdonald. 

4. All things work together for good to them that love 
God. — Tlie Bible. 

Each Each (one and like*) is used both as a substantive 

Every, and with the force of an adjective. Ever)/ (all and 

each) has no longer a substantive use, but retains its 

pronoun significance when used with the force of an 

adjective. 

Each in its substantive use is used in the singular. 
Each and every with the force of adjectives are used 
with singular nouns. 

136. Each and every are sometimes called dis- 
tributive pronouns because they are used to refer 
to the different members or individuals that make 
up a class. 

Each is used in referring to a class made up of two 
or more individuals or members. 

Every is used in referring to a class made up of three 
or more individuals or members. 



PRONOUXS. 121 

Each represents the individual members as making 
up a class. 

Every represents the class as made up of individual 
members. 

1. Each is strong relying on his own, and each is 
betrayed when he seeks in himself the courage of others. 

— Emerson. 

2. And each heart is whispering, "Home, home at last." 

— Hood. 

3. Every wish is a prayer with God. 

— Mrs. Browning. 

None (not one) is used as a substantive in the None. 
singular and in the plural number. The adjective force 
of none is expressed by no, a shortened form of none. 

1. Where none are beaux 'tis vain to be a belle. 

— Lyttleton. 

2. None but the brave deserves the fair. — Dryden. 

3. No day is without its innocent hope. — Buskin. 

Some (certain number or quantity of) is used as a Some. 
substantive and with an adjective force. As a sub- 
stantive it is used only in the plural, and with an adjec- 
tive force it is used with nouns in the singular or in the 
plural number ; as, — 

1. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and 
some have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 

2. Some people are more nice than wise. — Cowper. 

Any (single one or class of) is used as a substantive Any. 
and with the force of an adjective. In its substantive 
use any is generally in the plural number, and with 
the force of an adjective it is used with singular or 
plural nouns. 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



1. I have not seen you lately at any of the places I visit. 

— Steele. 

2. Has any old fellow got mixed with the boys ? — Holmes. 

Aught, Aught (ever a thing), naught (never a thing), are 

Naught, used only as substantives in the singular number ; as, — 

1. Unfaith in aught is want of faith in all. — Tennyson. 

2. You could do naught that was not pure and loving. 

— Eliot. 



Such. 



Certain. 



Several. 



Such (so like) is used as a substantive, and with the 
force of an adjective. As a substantive such is gener- 
ally in the plural number, but with the force of an 
adjective is used with singular or with plural nouns. 

1. Some there be that shadows kiss, 

Such have but a shadow's bliss. — Shakespeare. 

2. These enemies over the seas and over the mountain 
are such men as we. — Emerson. 

3. Such a nature, tickled with good success, disdains the 
shadow which he treads on at noon. — Shakespeare. 

Certain (the especial and separate ones) as a substan- 
tive is used in the plural number, and with the force of 
an adjective is used with singular or with plural nouns. 



1. The Count of Oifuentes followed, with certain 
chivalry of Seville. — Irving. 

2. There is a certain majesty in pleasure. — JSouth. 



»f the 



Several (separate ones) as a substantive is used in 
the plural, and with the force of an adjective is used 
with singular and plural nouns. 

1. Several of them neither rose from any conspicuous 
family nor left any behind them. — Addison. 



PRONOUNS. 123 

2. Each several ship a victory did win. — Dryden. 

3. At Paris I drove to several hotels and could not get 
admission. — Sidney Smith. 

137. Note that the words in full-faced type in 
the following sentences have certain pronoun char- 
acteristics. These words are frequently classed as 
indefinite or adjective pronouns. 

1. And both were young, and one was beautiful. — Byron. 

2. Common sense is instinct, and enough of it is genius. 

— Shaw. 

3. Much may be said on both sides. — Addison. 

4. Few, few shall part Avhere many meet. — Campbell. 

5. That only is happiness which we think to be so. 

— Richardson. 

6. What ye know, the same do I know. — Bible. 

Compound Indefinite Pronouns. 

138. Compound indefinite pronouns are formed 

as follows : — Indefinite 

Pronouns. 

1. By adding one to the simple indefinites, an?/, each, 

every, either, neither, no, some; as, any one, every one, 
each one, etc. 

2. By affixing- thing or body to some, any, every, no; 
as, somebody, something, anybody, anything, etc. 

One another and each other are also compound indefi- 
nite pronouns. 

1. No one can disgrace us but ourselves. — Holland. 

2. Each one is the entire emblem of human Life. 

— Emerson. 

3. Enthusiasts soon understand each other. — Irving. 



Compound 



1:24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. He who praises everybody praises nobody. — Joint si m. 

5. Every failure will teach a man something if he will 
learn. — Dickens. 

6. Nothing is rarer than a word in its right meaning. 

— Whipple. 

7. Everything is sweetened by risk. — Smith. 

The word else is used with compound indefinite pro- 
nouns to form an indefinite pronoun expression. This 
expression is regarded as a unit. 

1. Variety is nothing else but a continued novelty. 

— South. 

2. I do not know a better cure for sorrow than to pity 
somebody else. — Shaw. 

3. I knew it was my own doings, and no one else's, but I 
was too miserable to repent. — Stevenson. 

4. Then everybody wanted some of somebody else's. 

— Ruskin. 

Note in sentences (3) and (4) that the possessive end- 
ing is affixed at the end of the unit expression. 

To parse an indefinite pronoun is to tell its kind, its 
number, its gender, its case, and whether it is used as a 
substantive or with the force of an adjective. 

Parse the indefinite pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Men take each other's measure when they meet for 
the first time. — Emerson. 

2. Fear Him, and you have nothing else to fear. 

— Fordyce. 

3. Certain winds make men's temper bad. — Eliot. 

4. Every crime destroys more Edens than our own. 

— Hawthorne, 



PRONOUNS. 125 

5. Selfishness at the expense of others' happiness is 
demonism. — Beecher. 

6. Each mind has its own method. — Emerson. 

7. In a certain sense all men are historians. — Carlyle. 

8. Fortune, men say, doth give too much to many, 
But she never gave enough to any. — Harrington. 

9. One must be a wise reader to quote wisely and well. 

— Alcott. 

10. It is not trouble to doctor sick folks, but to doctor 
healthy ones is troublesome. — Shaw. 

11. Life and religion are one, or neither is anything. I 
will not say neither is going to be anything. — Macdonald. 

12. Pain pays the income of each precious thing. 

— Shakespeare. 

13. Nothing is so good as it seems beforehand. — Eliot. 

14. For we cannot know each other's secret. — Emerson. 

15. All that I am my mother made me. — Adams. 

16. Example is the school of mankind, and they will 
learn at no other. — Burke. 

17. All types of all classes march through all fable. 

— Thackeray. 

18. One should never think of death; one should think 
of life. — Beaconsfield. 

19. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. — Pope. 

20. A good wit will make use of anything. — Shakespeare. 

21. Everything in this world depends upon will. 

— Beaconsfield. 

22. Nothing is great but the exhaustless wealth of Na- 
ture. — Emerson. 

D. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Direct Question. 

Name the pronouns in the following sentences that 
are used in asking questions : — 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Who was Stonewall Jackson ? 

2. What was the dying order of Captain Lawrence? 

3. Which is the larger planet, Venus or the earth '.' 

Inter- 139. A pronoun used in asking questions is 

Pronoun ca ^ ec ^ an interrogative pronoun. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, what (an early 
neuter, singular form of who), winch (who + like, or 
what + like), and are declined as follows : — 



What? 





Singular. 






]'l.i i; \T_ 




NOM. 


POSS. 


OHJ. 


NUM. 


POflS. 


OBJ, 


who 


whose 


whom 


who 


whose 


Avliom 


what 
which 




what 

which 










which 




which 



Whether (which one of two) was formerly used as 

an interrogative pronoun, but now is used only inter- 
rogatively in noun classes, and commonly is followed 
by or not. 

Who? 140. Note that vJio in the following typical 
sentences is used in referring to persons, and that 
the answers expected to such questions arc names 
of persons, or pronouns referring to persons. 

1. Who taught the bee with winds and rain to strive 

To bring her burden to a certain hive '.' — Prior. 
2 Who can cloy the hungry edge of appetite ? 

— 'Shdkespt are. 

141. Note that what in the following typical 
sentences is used in referring to things, and that 
the answers expected to**such questions are the 
names of things, or pronouns, or pronouns refer- 
ring to things. 



PRONOUNS. 127 

1. 'What is opportunity to the man who can't use it ? 

— Eliot. 

2. "What can money do to console a man with a head- 
ache ? — Macdonald. 

142. Note that ivJiich in the following typical which? 
sentences is used either in referring to persons or 
things, and that the answer expected to such ques- 
tions is a definite choice out of the two or more 
known persons or things. 

1. "Which of you shall we say doth love us most ? 

— Shakespeare. 

2. Which is the more pleasurable, — the fears that re- 
ligion excites, that is, the fear of doing wrong, or the fears 
of vice, that is, the fear of being found out ? — Haydon. 

1. The interrogative pronoun who is a gender pro- Notes. 
noun, and is used in any case in the singular or plural 
number. 

2. The interrogative pronoun lohat is a neuter pro- 
noun, and when used as a substantive is found in the 
nominative or objective case of the singular number. 

3. The interrogative pronoun which is either a gen- 
der or a neuter pronoun, and in substantive use is found 
in the nominative or the objective case in the singular 
or plural number. 

4. The interrogative pronouns which and what may 
be used with nouns with the force of adjectives. 

Note from the following typical sentences that the 
interrogative pronoun, which, when used with a noun, 
has the same notion of asking for ;i definite choice. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best? 

— Lowell. 

2. Which debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich or 
the debt to the poor? — Emerson. 

Note from the following sentences that the inter- 
rogative pronoun ivhat may be used with nouns that 
are names of persons or things, and in the singular or 
in the plural number. 

1. What loneliness is more lonely than distrust? — Eliot. 

2. What planter will attempt to yoke 

A sapling with a falling oak ? — Swift. 

3. But what books in the circulating library circulate ? 

— Lowell. 

Note from the following sentences that interrogative 
sentences are sometimes used as object clauses : — 

1. Ask what is good of God above ; 
Ask of the great sun what is light ; 
Ask sin of what may be forgiven ; 

Ask what is happiness of heaven. — Bailey. 

2. God asks no man whether he will accept life. — BeecJier. 

3. We know what master laid thy keel, 

What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. — LongfeUow. 

Indirect Question. 

143. An interrogative sentence used as a noun 
clause is called an indirect question. 

144. Note from the following that voKat may be 
used to introduce an exclamatory expression, or a 
sentence having an exclamatory force, or an ex- 
clamatory word. 

1. G Amos Cottle ! Phoebus! What a name ! — Byron. 

2. What a strange thing is man ! — Id. 



PROXOUXS. 129 

3. Oh, what a dawn of day ! — Browning. 

4. What, ho! Chamberlain ! — Shakespeare. 

5. What ! Are the ladies of your land so tall ? 

— Tennyson. 

145. To parse an interrogative pronoun is to 
tell its kind, how it is used, what it expresses, its 
gender if any, its number, and its case. 

Parse interrogative pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. And what is so rare as a day in June ? — Lowell. 

2. Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight ? 
Who blushes at the name ? — Ingram. 

3. What mortal knows his preexistent state ? — Pope. 

4. But which is it to be ? Fight or make friends ? 

— Stevenson. 

5. "Whose taste, for instance, is truer and finer than 
Claude Lorraine's ? — Carlyle. 

6. What is the dawn without the view? — Landor. 

7. Who upon earth could live were all judged justly ? 

— Byron. 

8. What good hast thou done with thy life ? 

— Wordsworth. 

9. Which is more fair, 

The star of morning or the evening star ? 

Lo)l(ff('UoH\ 

10. What honest man would not rather be the sufferer 
than the defrauder? — Richardson. 

11. What can daunt us, what can turn us, 
Led to death by such as he ? — Kingsley. 

12. Who ran to catch me when I fell, 
And would some pretty story tell, 
Or kiss the place to make it well? 

M\ mother. — Jane Taylor. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Name the pronouns in the following sentences : — 

1. He makes no friend who never made a foe. — Thomson. 

2. I dislike an eye that never twinkles. — Loiigfellow. 

3. They had one son who had grown up to he the staff 
and pride of their age. — Irving. 

4. He early acquired the magic of method, which of itself 
works wonders. — Id. 

5. Learn to be good readers, which is perhaps a more dif- 
ficult thing than you imagine. — Cartyle. 

6. The evil that men do lives after them ; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

— Shakespeare. 
Note that the pronouns who, which, and that in the 
foregoing sentences are used to introduce sentences and 
connect them with an antecedent. 
Eelative 146 - ^ pronoun that is used to connect the son- 

Pronoun, tence which it introduces to the antecedent to 
which it refers is called a relative pronoun. 

Relative is from the Latin relativus — referring or 
indicating a relation. 

147. Note from the foregoing sentences that the 
antecedent of a relative pronoun may be a word, 
an expression, or a sentence. 

Note that in (1) and (2) of foregoing sentences the 
relative pronouns are used to introduce sentences that 
define or restrict the meaning of their antecedents. 

Restrictive 148 - A relative pronoun used to introduce a sen- 

Eelative tence that defines or restricts the meaning of its 

antecedent is called a restrictive relative pronoun. 



PRONOUNS. 



131 



Restrictive is from the Latin restrictus — limited. 

Note that in foregoing sentences (3), (4), (5), (6) 
the relative pronouns are used to introduce sentences 
that state additional facts about their antecedents. 

149. A relative pronoun used to introduce a 
sentence that states an additional fact about its 
antecedent is called a coordinate or supplementary 
relative pronoun. 

Supplementary is from the Latin supplementum — 
something added to. 

Note that the sentences introduced by restrictive 
relative pronouns are adjective clauses, and are used 
with their antecedents to designate more definitely the 
objects for which the antecedents stand. 

For example, in relative sentence (1), what he is 
meant ? And in relative sentence (2) what kind of 
eye is disliked ? In sentence (6) what evil ? 

150. 1 A sentence introduced by a supplementary 
relative pronoun is always in meaning the equiva- 
lent of a sentence coordinate with the sentence of 
its antecedent. Hence the supplementary relative 
pronoun will always be equal to a conjunction + 
a personal or neuter pronoun. 

For example, in sentence (3), who = and Ju>, and in 
sentences (4) and (5), which = and it. 

Name each of the relative pronouns in the following 
sentences, tell its antecedent, and state whether it is 
;> restrictive <>r a supplementary relative pronoun. 

i See Notes tor Teachers, 8. 



Supple- 
mentary 
Eelative 
Pronouns. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. I worked with patience, which seems almost power. 

— Browning. 

2. The man that loves and laughs must sure do well. 

I'njir. 

3. You who have any to love you, cling to them and 
thank God. — Thackeray. 

4. No person who is not a great sculptor or painter can 
be an architect. — Buskin. 

5. Duty is a power which rises with us in the morning 
and goes to rest with us at night. — Gladstone. 

6. He that sleeps feels not the toothache. — Shakespeare. 

7. He lives who dies to win a lasting name. 

— Drummond. 

8. Man is born with a profusion of gifts that are never 
used. — Brooks. 

9. In life there are meetings which seem like fate. 

— Meredith. 

151. The relative pronouns are ivho, which, that, 
what, and sometimes but and as. 

That, what, but, and as are not declined. 
Who and which are declined as follows : — 





Singular. 






Plural. 




NOM. 


poss. 


OBJ. 


NOM. 


poss. 


on.i. 


who 


whose 


whom 


who 


whose 


whom 


which 


whose 


which 


which 


whose 


which 



Who. 



1. He is a free man whom the truth makes free. 

— Dryden. 

2. And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

— Goldsmith. 

3. No man is born into the world whose work is not born 
with him. — Lowell. 

Note from the foregoing typical sentences that who 
is used in referring to persons. 



PRONOUNS. 133 

Who is sometimes used in referring to animals or 
tilings personified ; as, — 

1. Invite the rook who, high amid the boughs, 

In early spring his airy city builds. — TJwmson. 

2. Italia ! Italia ! thou who hast the fatal gift of beauty. 

— Byron. 

152. Note from the following typical sentences 
that which is used in referring to things. 

153. Note from sentence (3) that ivhich may be -which 
used with its antecedent, having the force of an 
adjective. 

1. Gratitude is the fairest blossom which springs from 
the soul. — Ballon. 

2. There is a stream whose course is hidden. — Emerson. 

3. The taking of which bark I verily believe was the 
ruin of every mother's son of us. — Kingsley. 

4. Life is a bubble which any breath may dissolve. 

— Greeley. 

Which was formerly used in referring to persons ; 
as, — 

Our Father which art in heaven, etc. 

Which with a preposition has as an equivalent ex- 
pression the word where + the corresponding preposi- 
tion affixed; as, — in which = wherein ; by which = 
whereby ; to ivhich = whereto ; with which = wherewith. 



154. Note in the following typical sentences 
that the relative pronoun that is used in referring 
to persons, animals, or things. 



That. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

That. 1. All are not merry that dance lightly. — Herbert. 

2. The fur that warms a monarch warmed a bear. — Pope. 

3. The mail recover'd of the bite, 

The dog it was that died. — Goldsmith. 

4. And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of 
all. — Holmes. 



That is the oldest of the relative pronouns and 
originally was a demonstrative pronoun. 

Because that may be used both in referring to per- 
sons and things, it is sometimes preferred to who or 
which when the relative has two or more antecedents 
representing both persons and things. 

That is also used for the sake of euphony in taking 
the place of who or which when their use in consecutive 
clauses would sound unpleasant. 

155. Tliat is the general and in most cases the 
preferable restrictive relative pronoun. 

156. In the following cases who and which are 
now usually regarded as the preferable relative 
pronouns, even in restrictive relative sentences. 

I. When the antecedent is a personal pronoun ; as, — 

1. He laughs at scars who never felt a wound. 

— SJutkespt are. 

2. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron. 

3. He only who gave life has a power over it. 

— Richardson. 

II. When the antecedent is a demonstrative pro- 
noun ; as, — 



PRONOUNS. 135 

1. You will always find those who think they know your 
duty better than you know it — Emerson. 

2. There is no weariness like that which arises from 
doubting. — /South. 

III. When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun 
referring to persons ; as, — 

1. The real man is one who always finds excuses for 
others, but never excuses himself. — Beecher. 

2. Our chief want in life is somebody who shall make 
us do what we can. — Emerson. 

IV. When the antecedent is a gender noun which 
has a pronoun used with it ; as, — 

1. Every person is near to you whom you can bless. 

— Channing. 

2. All men who have sense and feeling are being con- 
tinually helped. — Buskin. 

V. When the relative pronoun is used as the object 
of a preposition. 

That is never used as a subsequent after a preposition. 
That as the subsequent of a preposition has the preposi- 
tion at the end of the relative clause ; as, — 

I saw the man that you refer to. 

Form sentences with that as subsequent of the prepo- 
sitions, through, under, between, and the awkwardness 

of the construction will be evident. 

That is sometimes used with the prepositions, hi/, for, 
to, of, but in other cases the relative pronoun which is 
used ; as, 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Style is the gossamer on which the seeds of truth 
float through the world. — Bancroft. 

2. We have reached the mountain from which all these 
drift boulders were detached. — Emerson. 

VI. When the relative pronoun is in juxtaposition 
to the demonstrative conjunction, that ; as. — 

So true it is that Nature has caprices which art cannot 
imitate. — Macaulay. 

VII. When the relative pronoun is separated from 
its verb, and 1 lias an isolated position in the sentence ; 
as, — 

1. I mean the man who, when the distant poor need 
help, denies them nothing but his name. — Cowper. 

2. The law is a gun which, if it misses a pigeon, kills a 
crow. — Lytton. 

157. Note that what in the following typical 
sentences has not an antecedent expressed. 

What. l. The head best leaves to the heart what the heart alone 

divines. — Alcott. 

2. What men call accident is God's part. — Bailey. 

What is the neuter singular form of who, and when 
used alone is always in the neuter singular. 

158. As the form and use of what arc always 
definitely known, the antecedent of what can 
readily be inferred, and for that reason is gen- 
erally omitted. 

Antecedent 159. The antecedent of what when formerly it 
What. was expressed was Unit, and very rarely a neuter 
pronoun in the singular ; as, — 



PRONOUNS. 137 

1. That what he wills he does. — Shakespeare. 

2. That what cannot be repaired is not to be regretted. 

— Johnson. 

3. That what is extremely proper in one company is 
highly improper in another. — Chesterfield. 

4. That what will come, and must come, shall come well. 

— Arnold. 

5. I fear nothing what can be said against me. 

— Shakespeare. 

160. When the antecedent of what is expressed 
for the sake of emphasis, it takes the unusual, 
hence the emphatic, position of following the rela- 
tive pronoun ; as, — 

1. "What fates impose, that men mnst needs abide. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. "What a man does, that he has. — Emerson. 

3. What the light of your mind . . . pronounces incred- 
ible, that in God's name leave uncredited. — Carlyle. 

It is sometimes maintained that what is a compound 
relative pronoun either inform or in use. 

161. What cannot be a compound relative pro- What 
noun in form, as it is a neuter singular form of not e( l ual t0 

That 

ivho, the early interrogative pronoun, just as that which. 
with the same neuter singular ending, t, is a neu- 
ter singular form of the early demonstrative form. 
Moreover, which, the other element of the so-called 
equivalent, is itself a compound word made up of 
who + an early form of like, which ending is also 
seen in the words each, such, and much. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nor can that which be regarded as the grammatical 
or logical equivalent of what, but rather the equivalent 
of what + its antecedent expressed or implied. 

162. Note that but in the following typical sen- 
tences is used as a relative pronoun after a nega- 
tive in the clause of its antecedent. 

But. 1. There is not a single heart but has its moments of 

longing. — Beecher. 

2. There is no heroic poem in the world but is at bottom 
a biography, the life of a man. — Garlyle. 

3. There's not a string attuned to mirth 
But has its chord in melancholy. — Hood. 

163. Note that as in the following typical sen- 
tences is used as a relative pronoun after such 
words as such, so, as, in connection with its ante- 
cedent. 

As. 1. Never put much confidence in such as put no confi- 

dence in others. — Hare. 

2. Life, believe, is not a dream so dark as sages say. 

— Bronte". 

3. A cottage will hold as much happiness as would stock 
a palace. — Hamilton. 

Antecedent 164. Note from the following typical sentences 
Omitted, that the antecedent of who may be omitted, when 
if expressed it would be a personal pronoun. 

1. Who broods over the past loses courage for the future. 

— Lanier. 

2. Who loves a garden loves a greenhouse too. — Cotoper. 

3. Whose house is of glass must not throw stones at 
another. — Herbert. 



PRONOUNS. 139 

165. Note from the following sentences that the Relative 
relative pronoun may be omitted in condensed Omitted, 
constructions when it can readily be inferred from 

the context. 

1. Complaint is the largest tribute heaven receives. 

— Swift. 

2. Every duty we omit obscures some truth we should 
have known. — Ruskin. 

3. All I have seen teaches me to trust the Creator for all 
I have not seen. — Emerson. 

166. To the relative pronouns ivho, which, and indefinite 
what, are affixed the endings ever and soever, and Relative 
thus are formed what are called compound relative 
pronouns, or indefinite relative pronouns. 

These pronouns are equivalent to a relative pronoun 
with an indefinite pronoun antecedent ; as, — 
whoever = any one who. 
whosoever = any such a one who. 
whichever = any one which or anything which. 

The indefinite relative pronouns formed with the end- 
ing ever are more generally used than those ending in 
soever. 

167. Whoso is sometimes used as an indefinite 
relative pronoun. 

168. Whosoever is declined as follows : — 





Singular. 






Plural. 




\<>M. 


poss. 


OBJ. 


NOM. 


POSS. 


OBJ. 


who 


whose- 


whom- 


who- 


whose- 


whom- 


soever 


soever 


soever 


soever 


soever 


soever 



No other indefinite relative pronouns are declined. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

169. All relative indefinite pronouns excepting 
ivhose, whoever, and whosoever may be used with a 
noun having the force of adjectives. 

170. Note from the following typical sentences 
that the antecedent of an indefinite relative pro- 
noun is not expressed, and that the antecedent 
implied or embodied in the pronoun does not refer 
to definite persons or things, but to persons or 
things in a general or an indefinite way. 

1. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. 

— Chesterfield. 

2. "Whoso lives for humanity must be content to lose 
himself. — Frothingham. 

3. Whatever day 

Makes man a slave, takes half its worth away. — Pope. 

4. Whatsoever kind of man he is, you at least give him 
full authority over your son. — Buskin. 

5. "Whatsoever is worthy of their love is worthy of their 
anger. — Denham. 

171. A relative pronoun has the same gender, 
number, and person as its antecedent. 

172. To parse a relative pronoun is to answer 
the following questions : — 

1. What kind of relative pronoun is it ? 

2. What is its antecedent ? 

3. For what does the antecedent stand ? 

4. In what respect docs it agree with its antecedent '! 

5. What is its construction in the sentence ? 



PRONOUNS. 141 

Parse who in the sentence, " He who gives joy finds 

1. Who is a restrictive relative pronoun used instead 
of that, because the antecedent is a personal pronoun. 
(See 156, I.) 

2. The antecedent is the word he. 

3. The antecedent he is used to refer to a person. 

4. Who agrees in gender, number, and person with he. 

5. Who is the subject nominative of the verb give. 

Parse the relative pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Goodness is the only investment that never fails. 

— Thoreau. 

2. A verse may find him who a sermon flies. 

— Herbert. 

3. There are occasions on which all apology is rudeness. 

— Johnson. 

4. We have always pretensions to fame which, in our 
hearts, we know to be disputable. — Id. 

5. He only is exempt from failure who makes no effort. 

— Whately. 

6. Admiration is a youthful fancy which scarcely ever 
survives to maturer years. — Shaw. 

7. And eyes disclosed what eyes alone could tell. 

— Dwight. 

8. Who listens once will listen twice. — Byron. 

9. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 
But has one vacant chair. — Longfellow. 

10. Whatever makes men good Christians makes them 
good citizens. — Webster. 

11. We may learn by practice such things upon earth ;is 
shall be of use to us in heaven. — E. 11. Chopin. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parse the personal, indefinite, demonstrative, inter- 
rogative, and relative pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Tell me the tales that to me were so dear. — Bailey. 

2. Nature designed us to be of good cheer. — Jen-old. 

3. A wise man will find us to be rogues by our faces. 

— Swift 

4. Show me a thoroughly contented man, and 1 will 
show you a useless one. — /Shakespeare. 

5. The God who gave us life, gave us liberty at the 
same time. — Jefferson. 

6. Something is lost in accuracy, but much is gained in 
effect. — Macaulay. 

7. For what is glory but the blaze of fame ? — Mil/on. 

8. There is nothing like fun, is there ? I haven't any 
myself, but I do like it in others. — Haliburton. 

9. The glories of the possible are ours. — Taylor. 

10. What is mind ? No matter. What is matter ? 
Never mind. What is the soul ? It is immaterial. — Hood. 

11. It is no merit of mine that he loves me. — Eliot. 

12. Obedience completes itself in understanding. 

— Brooks. 

13. Talent is that which is in a man's power. Genius 
is that in whose power a man is. — Lou-ell. 

14. Who loves not more the night of June 
Than cold December's gloomy noon? — Scott 

15. Brutus was Caesar's friend, and you were mine. 

— Longfellow. 

16. Life is a succession of lessons, which muet be lived 
to be understood. — Emerson. 

17. There is no vice so simple, but assumes 
Some mark of virtue on his outward parts. 

— Shakespeare. 

18. Take in the ideas of the day ; drain off those of yes- 
terday. — Lytton. 



PRONOUNS. 143 

19. Nothing can bring yon peace but yourself. 

— Emerson. 

20. They have no other doctor but sun and the fresh air, 
and that such an one as never sends them to the apothe- 
cary. — South. 

21. There is nothing certain in man's life but this, that 
he must lose it. — Meredith. 

22. Those are generally good at flattery who are good 
for nothing else. — South. 

23. But whoso is heroic will always find crises to try 
the edge. — Emerson. 

24. All join to guard what each desires to gain. — Pope, 

25. He was the first man of the time in which he grew. 

— Choate. 

26. Friends, if we be honest with ourselves, we shall be 
honest with each other. — Macdonald. 

27. It is what we give up, not what we lay up, that adds 
to our lasting store. — Ballon. 

28. Talking over the things which you have read with 
your companions fixes them on the mind. — Watts. 

29. Those who bring sunshine to the lives of others can- 
not keep it from themselves. — Barrie. 

30. To persevere in one's duty, and be silent, is the best 
answer to calumny. — Washington. 

31. I have no other but a woman's reason ; I think him 
so because I think him so. — Shakespeare. 

32. About everything he wrote there was a certain nat- 
ural grace and decorum. — Macaulay. 

33. There were none of the Grogrians but could sing a 
song, or of the Marjorams but could tell a story. — Goldsmith. 

34. I hate the man who builds his name 
On ruins of another's fame. — Qay. 

35. Each man is a hero and an oracle to somebody, and 
to that person whatever he says has an enhanced value. 

— Eim rson. 



144 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

36. To Truth's house there is a single door, which is ex- 
perience. — Taylor. 

37. We must have an intellectual quality in all property 
and in all action, or they are naught. — Emerson. 

38. Inner sunshine warms not only the heart of the 
owner, but all who come in contact with it. — Fields. 

39. Our affections are our life. We live by these. They 
supply our warmth. — Charming. 

40. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows 
keener with constant use. — Irving. 

41. Lepidus flatters both, of both is flattered, but he 
neither loves, nor either cares for him. — Shakespeare. 

42. I feel like one who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted, 

Whose lights are fled, whose garlands dead, 
And all but he departed. — Moore. 

43. How happy could I be with either, 
Were t'other dear charmer away ! 
But while ye thus tease me together, 
To neither a word will I say. — Gay. 

44. There is no time so miserable but a man may be true. 

— Shakespeare. 

F. SUMMARY OF DEFIXITIOXS. 
Summary A pronoun is a reference word used to represent 



of 

Definitions. 



some person or thing. 

An antecedent is a noun or an equivalent to 
which a pronoun may refer for defmiteness of 
meaning. 

Person is that property of pronouns which is 
used to designate the relation of a person as 
speaking, spoken to, or spoken about. 



PRONOUNS. 145 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun which by its 
form distinguishes the relation of person. 

A neuter pronoun is a pronoun that does not dis- 
tinguish the property of gender, and has a neuter 
noun as its antecedent. 

A compound personal pronoun is a personal pro- 
noun compounded with the word self. 

A compound neuter pronoun is a neuter pronoun 
compounded with the word self. 

An emphatic or intensive pronoun is a compound 
personal or neuter pronoun used to emphasize that 
which is named by a noun, or that which is repre- 
sented by the pronoun itself or in connection with 
a pronoun implied. 

A reflexive pronoun is a compound personal or 
neuter pronoun used to refer to the same person or 
thing designated by the subject of the verb of the 
sentence. 

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that directs 
attention to that which it is used to represent. 

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun used to 
refer to any or to no specific person or thing, or 
to an indefinite quantity or number of persons 
or tilings. 

A compound indefinite pronoun is an indefinite 
pronoun compounded with the word thing or body, 
or with another indefinite pronoun. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in 
asking a question. 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An indirect sentence is an interrogative sentence 
used as a noun clause. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to 
connect the sentence which it introduces to the 
antecedent to which it refers. 

A restrictive relative pronoun is a pronoun that 
introduces a sentence that defines or restricts the 
meaning of its antecedent. 

A supplementary relative pronoun is a pronoun 
that is used to introduce a sentence that states 
an additional fact about its antecedent. 

An indefinite relative pronoun is a relative pro- 
noun compounded with the endings so, ever, and 
soeuer. 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 

I. Classes. 

1. Personal and neuter. 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

a. Intensive or Emphatic. 

b. Reflexive. 

2. Demonstrative. 

3. Indefinite. 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

4. Interrogative. 

5. Relative. 

1. Simple. 

2. Indefinite or compound. 



PRONOUNS. 147 

II. Gender — same as Nouns. (See page 63 
et seq.) 

III. Number — same as Nouns. (See page 70 

et seq.) 

IV. Case — same as Nouns. (See page 77 et 

seq.) 

See also Outline Classification of Nouns, page 
101. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



III. ADJECTIVES. 
A. CLASSES. 

Adjectives 173- ^ n a djective is a word used with a noun 
to designate more definitely that for which the 
noun stands. (See 46.) 

174. An adjective may be used also with pro- 
nouns or constructions used as equivalents of 
nouns. 

An adjective may occupy different positions in the 
sentence with reference to its noun. 

1. Speech is great, but silence is greater. — Carlyle. 

2. Joy is the best of wine. — Eliot. 

3. An infatuated man is not only foolish but wild. 

— Crabbt . 

Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in 
the foregoing sentences follows the copulative verb with 
which it is joined to form the predicate, and refers to 
the subject noun with which it is used. 

Predicate 175. Such adjectives are called predicate adjec- 

Adjectives. t i ves# (See 49.) 

1. A loving heart is the truest wisdom. — Dickons. 

2. Fine manners are the mantle of fair mi m Is. — Alcott. 

3. The smallest act of charity shall stand us in great 
stead. — Atterbury, 



ADJECTIVES. 149 

Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in 
the foregoing sentences precedes the noun with which 
it is used. 

176. Such adjectives are called attributive adjec- ... ., . 
tives. Adjectives. 

1. This power of woman, natural to her, never sleeps 
until modesty is gone. — Addison. 

2. A female friend, amiable, clever, and devoted, is a pos- 
session more valuable than parks and palaces. — Beaconsfield. 

3. He has an intellectual vision, clear, wide, piercing, 
methodical. — Carlyle. 

Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in 
the foregoing sentences directly follows the noun with 
which it is used. 



177. Such adjectives are called appositive adjec- 



Appositive 



tives. Adjectives 

Name the predicate, the attributive, and the apposi- 
tive adjectives in the following sentences : — 

1. Her voice was ever soft, 
Gentle and low, an excellent thing in woman. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, 
Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. 

— Waller. 

3. The fir trees dark and high ; 
I used to think their slender tops 
Were close against the sky. — Hood. 

4. Flavia, most tender of her own good name, 
Is rather careless of her sister's fame. — ( 'ovoper. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Humor, warm and all-embracing as the sunshine, 
bathes its objects in a genial and abiding light. 

— Whipple. 
(Review pages 22, 23, 24.) 

Descriptive 178 - Aii adjective used to describe or tell the 
Adjective, kind or quality of that for which the noun stands 
is called a descriptive adjective. 

Descriptive is from the Latin desrriptivus — having 
the quality of describing ; as, — 

1. The crimson moon . . . foretells the harvest near. 

— Tliurlow. 

2. A proud heart and a lofty mountain are never power- 
ful. — Eliot. 

3. These little things are great to little men. — Ooldam ith. 

Quantitive 179. An adjective used to designate how many 
Adjective, there are or how much is contained in that for 

which the noun stands is called an adjective of 

quantity or a quantitive adjective. 

Quantitive is from the Latin quantitivus — how man v. 

1. A countryman between two lawyers is like a fish 
between two cats. — Franklin. 

2. The rugged cliff has a thousand faces in a thousand 
hours. — Emerson. 

3. A little snow tumbled about becomes a mountain. 

— Shakespeare. 

Demonstra- 18 °- An adjective used to direct attention to 
tive that for which the noun stands is called a demon- 
Adjective. strative ad je C tiye. 



ADJECTIVES. 151 

1. Sweet Emma Moreland of yonder town, 
Met me walking in yonder way. — Tennyson. 

2. Yon gray lines that fret the clouds are messengers of 
day. — Shakesjieare. 

3. This was the opinion and practice of the latter Cato. 

— Swift. 

4. It is a maxim that those to whom everybody allows 
the second place have an undoubted title to the first. — Id. 

Note that the demonstrative adjectives in fall-faced 
type in the following sentences are used to designate 
the numerical order of that which is named by the 
noun. 

1. Our poetry in the eighteenth century was prose; our 
prose in the seventeenth, poetry. — Hare. 

2. The first step to greatness is to be honest. — Johnson. 

181. Such demonstrative adjectives are some- 



Ordinal 



times called ordinal numeral adjectives. Numeral 

Adjective, 
Ordinal is from the Latin ordo — an order. 

182. Numeral adjectives of quantity are some- Cai-dirial 
times called cardinal numeral adjectives. Numeral 



Cardinal is from the Latin cardinalis — chief or 
principal. 

Note that the demonstrative adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences are used to point out any one of a 
group or class of persons or things, or a particular 
individual group or class of persons or things. 

1. A miser grows rich by seeming poor. — Shenstone. 

2. Generosity is the flower of justice. — Hawthorne. 



Adjective. 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Article. 



Indefinite 
Articles. 



Definite 
Articles. 



An or A. 



3. A man of pleasure is a man of pains. — Young. 

4. The second sober thought of the people is seldom 
wrong. — Van Buren. 

183. Such demonstrative adjectives are called 
articles. 

184. The article that is used to point out any 
one of a group or class of persons or things is 
called the indefinite article. 

185. The article that is used to point out a 
particular group or class of persons or things is 
called the definite article. 

186. The indefinite article an with its shortened 
form a is from cine, an early form of one. It is 
used to point out any one person from a class of 
persons or any one thing from a class of things. 
As the indefinite article is singular in its meaning, 
it cannot be used with a noun in the plural num- 
ber, and as it designates one from a class, it cannot 
be used with a noun that is the name of a class. 



Explain why an article cannot be used in the plans 
indicated in the following 1 sentences : — 



1. We saw a strange kind of bird. 

2. Woman is the equal of man. 

3. Idlers always have some sort of excuse. 

4. The letter will bring some such answer. 

5. Lincoln was not that type of hero. 

Note the following expressions. It lias sometimes 
been maintained that the indefinite article is used with 



ADJECTIVES. 153 

a noun in the plural number. Note that in each of 
those cases the indefinite article has its original mean- 
ing of one, and is used to point out the following adjec- 
tive as a numerical group, and both together are used 
with the following noun. 

A hundred men. A thousand years. A million 
dollars. 

187. Note from the following examples that an 
is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. 

An enemy, an heir, an owl, an hour, an ocean, an 
honest man, an umbrella. 

188. Note from the following examples that a is 
used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound. 

A country, a horse, a map, a hen, a youth, a unit, a 
useful book, a European, a yew tree, a university, a 
wonder, many a one. 

Some writers use an before words beginning with h 
and not accented on the first syllable; as, an hypothesis, 
an hysterical laugh, an historical essay, an hygrometer. 

189. The definite article, the, is an old masculine The. 
demonstrative form, the neuter singular form of 
which was that, and it still retains its demonstra- 
tive use in pointing out definitely that for which 

the noun stands. The is used with its substantive 
word to point out as known, definite, or importanl 
an individual person or thing, or group of persons 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or things, or a class of persons or things ; as, the 
boy; the Alps; the diamond; the Irish; the 
Smiths; the good; the Ohio ; the United States; 
the mineral kingdom ; Gladstone, the statesman ; 
Webster, the orator. 

Observe how articles are used in the following com- 
pound constructions : — 

1. In his own household he was the prophet, priest, and 
king. 

2. Caesar was a general, statesman, and historian. 

3. The sovereign wore a black and white robe. 

4. We saw the old and famous castle. 

190. Note from the foregoing sentences that an 
article which is used with two or more nouns des- 
ignating the same person or thing is placed only 
before the first noun, and when used with a noun 
having two or more adjectives, the article is placed 
before only the first adjective. 

Construct or select eight additional sentences illus- 
trating the foregoing rule. 

191. Note from the following typical expressions 
that the article precedes the general adjective used 
with the same noun. 

An earnest man, the whole company, a beautiful 
scene, the final review, a glorious sunrise, a majestic 
mountain. 

Such words as all, both, man//, such, what, or adjec- 
tives modified by the adverbs, as how, tuu, and sv. may 



ADJECTIVES. 155 

precede the article ; as, all the soldiers, both the boys, 
many a mail, such an hour, what a day, as good an idea, 
how great a trial, too wise a man, so good a precept. 

192. Note from the following sentences that an 
article which is used with two or more nouns re- 
ferring to different persons or things is placed 
before each noun, and when the noun is not ex- 
pressed the article is placed before each adjective 
that represents the noun implied. 

1. The general, the colonel, and the captain were in 
consultation. 

2. We saw a lion, a tiger, and a man in the same cage. 

3. He had in his yard the brown, the green, the yellow, 
and the purple quartz. 

4. The master drove a black and white horse. 

Construct or select eight additional sentences illus- 
trating the foregoing case. 

Note. — In the foregoing cases, when the article is 
regularly omitted, it may be used for the sake of em- 
phasis, and when the article is regularly used in con- 
structions regarded as a unit ; as, — 

1. He will be a better and a wiser man. 

2. He was the orator and the statesman of his age. 

3. He handed him the pen and the ink. 

4. The boy and the girl have gone to school. 

5. A horse and a wagon stood at the door. 

Explain the presence and absence of articles in the 
connected constructions in the following sentences: — 

1. The firmest and noblest ground on which people can 
live is truth. — Emerson. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. The edges and corners of the box were carved with 
most wonderful skill. — Hawthorne. 

3. Mountains have a grand, stupid, lovable tranquillity. 

— Holmes. 

4. The hammer and the anvil are the two hemispheres 
of every true reformer's character. — Holland. 

5. The foolish and the dead alone never change their 
opinions. — Lotrell. 

6. The sleeping ocean lay like a wavy and glittering 
mirror. — Cooper. 

7. The winds and the waves are always on the side of 
the ablest navigators. — Gibbon. 

8. The leafy, blossoming present time springs from the 
whole past. — CarlyU. 

9. Ought a gentleman to be a loyal son, a true husband, 
an honest father ? — Thackeray. 

10. Of these pamphlets, the longest, the bitterest, and 
the ablest was commonly attributed to Ferguson. — Macanlay. 

11. A large, bare forehead gives a woman a masculine 
and defying look. — Hunt. 

B. COMPARISON. 

Note that the different degrees of sweetness denoted 
by the following adjectives are designated by different 
forms of the adjective. 

Sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

These different forms are called comparative forms 
of the adjective. 

Some adjectives of quantity are also used to express 
comparison. 

Comparison. 193 - The property of adjectives that designates 
the degrees of quality or characteristic of that for 
which the noun stands is called comparison. 



ADJECTIVES. 157 

Comparison is from the French conxparaison — the act 
of comparing. 

194. The different forms used to indicate the 
different steps in comparison, are called degrees of 
comparison. 

Degree is from the French degre — a step. 

Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing sentences is the simplest form of the adjective. 

1. The wise man is but a clever infant. — Carh/le. 

2. A small unkindness is a great offense. — More. 

3. A narrow mind begets obstinacy. — Dryden. 

Note that this simple form of the adjective is the 
basis of other forms. 

195. The simplest form of the adjective and the Positive 
form used as the basis of comparison is called the Degree, 
positive degree. 

Positive is from the Latin positivus — absolute. 

Note that in the positive degree a certain degree of 
quality or characteristic is assumed to be possessed. 

Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the fol- 
lowing sentences is used to designate a quality or char- 
acteristic as one degree higher or lower than that- 
designated by the positive degree. 

1. Character is higher than intellect. — Enn rson. 

2. No man is wiser for his learning. — Selden. 

3. The higher a man is in grace, the lower he will be in 
his own esteem. — Spurgeon. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Comparative 196. The form of the adjective that is used to 
Degree, designate a quality or a characteristic as one degree 
higher or lower than that designated by the posi- 
tive degree is called the comparative degree. 

Comparative is from the Latin comparativus — not 
absolute, relative. 

Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the 
following sentences is used to designate a quality or a 
characteristic in the degree highest or lowest from that 
designated by the positive degree. 

1. The greatest firmness and the greatest mercy. 

— Longfellow. 

2. The best hearts are the bravest. — Sterne. 

3. The deepest rivers make least din. — Sterling. 

Superlative 197 - The form of the adjective that is used to 
Degree, designate a quality or a characteristic in the degree 
highest or lowest from that designated by tin- 
positive degree is called the superlative degree. 

Superlative is from the Latin superlativns — supreme 
or highest. 

Note that the comparative and superlative degrees 
are degrees relative to the positive degree, and conse- 
quently relative to each other. 

Note that the comparative degree is used when two 
persons or things are compared, and the superlative 
degree is used when more than two things are compared. 

Inflectional Note the inflection of the following adjectives in the 
Form. different degrees of comparison : — 





ADJECTIVES. 




POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE 


cold 


cold-er 


cold-est 


warm 


warm-er 


warm-est 


stout 


stout-er 


stout-est 


fat 


fatt-er 


fatt-est 


sad 


sadd-er 


sadd-est 


wise 


wise-r 


wise-st 


fine 


fine-r 


fine-st 


holy 


liolie-r 


liolie-st 


merry 


merrie-r 


merrie-st 



159 



Note that tlie foregoing adjectives in the positive 
degree are generally words of one syllable. 

Note that the comparative degree is formed by 
affixing er or r to the positive degree, and the superla- 
tive degree is formed by affixing est or st to the positive 
degree. 

Note that when the positive degree ends in a con- 
sonant the er and est affixes are used. 

Note that when the positive degree ends in a vowel 
the affixes r and st are used. 

Note that in adjectives ending in a consonant pre- 
ceded by a short vowel, the final consonant is doubled 
before adding er and est. 

Note that final y is changed to ie before adding the 
affixes r and st. (See Sect. 95, I., Note 1.) 



Eegular, 



198. Note that the following adjectives have an i rre g U iar. 
irregular form of comparison: — 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


, bad 






1. -j ill 


worse 


worst 


(evil 







1G0 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


2. far 


(farther 

X further 


( farthest 




( furthest 


o j good 
' I well 


better 


best 


4. hind 


hinder 


( hindmost 
( hindermost 


5. late 


( later 


t latest 




( latter 


I last 


6 ( many 
( much 


more 


most 


7 (near 
' (nigh 


( nearer 

( nigher 


( nearest 
- nighest 
( next 


8. old 


( older 


( oldest 




( elder 


( eldest 


9. little 


( less 


least 



199. Note that the following adjectives have no 
form for the positive degree : — 



COMPARATIVE. 

inner 

nether 

outer 

utter 

upper 
under 



SUPERLATIVE. 

inner 
innermost 

nethermost 
I < >utinost 
( outermost 
J utmost 
( uttermost 
( upmost 
< uppermost 

undermost 



Note that lesser is a double comparative form, and 
hindermost, innermost, nethermost, outermost, uttermost, 



ADJECTIVES. 161 

uppermost, form the superlative by affixing most to the 
comparative form. 

200. Note that the following adjectives have 
only a comparative form: — 

After, over, rather. 

Some adjectives and nouns ending in most are super- 
lative in force, but do not distinguish any positive or 
comparative degree ; as, — 

Hithermost, northernmost, eastmost, endmost, and topmost. 

201. Note from the following sentences that Adverbial, 
adjectives may have variations of degrees ex- 
pressed as equivalents to inflectional comparison 

by using the adverb more before the positive 
degree of the adjective to form a comparative, 
and most before the positive to form the superla- 
tive degree. 

1. Joy is more divine than sorrow, for joy is bread and 
sorrow is medicine. — Beecher. 

2. The most enthusiastic man in a cause is rarely chosen 
as a leader. — Helps. 

This is sometimes called comparison by adverbs or 
adverbial mode of comparison. 

There is no established rule that can be laid down 
for the use of the inflectional or the adverbial mode of 
comparison, but the tendency is in the direction of 
using the inflectional comparison with adjectives of one 
syllable, and the adverbial mode of comparison with 
words of two or more syllables. With adjectives of 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



two syllables the use of the mode of comparison La 
largely determined by euphony. 

202. Note from the following sentences that 
when two connected forms of comparison are used 
in the same sentence, the inflected form precedes 
the adverbial form of comparison. 

1. The highest and most lofty trees have the most reason 
to dread the thunder. — Rollin. 

2. The deepest and most passionate love is that which 
survives the death of esteem. — Ouida. 

3. The purest and most thoughtful minds are those which 
love culor the most. — Buskin. 

203. Note from the following sentences that hss 
with the positive degree of an adjective may form 
a comparative degree, and least with the positive 
degree may form the .superlative degree of com- 
parison. This is sometimes called the descending 
scale of comparison. 

1. Men are less forgiving than women. — Richardson. 

2. Mammon led them on ; 

Mammon, the least erective spirit that fell 
From heaven. — Mi It mi. 

Note from the following sentences that the adverbs, 
too and very, with the positive degree of an adjective 
may be used to express an implied comparison in an 
absolute sense, that is, without any comparison with 
the rest of a class. 

1. They live too long who happiness outlive. — Dryden. 

2. Men are never very wise in the exercise of a new- 
power. — Charming. 



ADJECTIVES. 163 

In early English the comparative and superlative 
degrees of the adjective were sometimes used in an 
absolute sense, the comparative degree being equal to 
too with the positive, and the superlative degree in the 
sense of very with the positive. This superlative use 
is still retained in some expressions in the language ; 

as, — ■ 

My dearest mother, etc. 

The meaning of some adjectives is such as to make 
relative comparison impossible ; as, — 

eternal, indefinite, first, -weekly, etc. 

It must, however, be remembered in connection with 
the limitation of the comparison of many adjectives 
that words have a general and a technical meaning, and 
in common speech and writing the general rather than 
the technical meaning is employed and understood. 
Many adjectives that could not be compared from the 
standpoint of their technical meaning are in commonly 
accepted usage comparable from the standpoint of their 
general meaning. 

Note the general and the technical meaning of such 
words as, — 

round, black, empty, perfect, extreme, chief, etc. 

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, tell 
to what class each one belongs, and compare all that 
are found in the comparative or superlative degrees : — 

1. The beams of joy are made belter by reflection. 

— FuUer. 

2. It is easier to suppress the first desire than to satisfy 
all that follow it. — Franklin. 



164 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



3. The greatest happiness comes from the greatest 
activity. — Bovee. 

4. That man lives twice that lives the first life well. 

— Herrick. 

5. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct, 

— Beaconsfield. 

6. The highest rate of interest that we pay is on bor- 
rowed trouble. — Slvaw. 

7. Patience is the chiefest fruit of study. — Selden. 

8. A poor spirit is poorer than a poor purse. — Swift. 

9. A smile is ever more bright and beautiful with a tear 
upon it. — Landor. 

10. Fiction is most powerful when it contains most 
truth. — Hull* i ml. 

11. The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to 
all the forces of the crown. — Chatham. 

12. The greatest truths are the simplest. — Ballon. 

13. Common sense is the genius of our age. 

— Lord Thurlow. 

14. The true and strong and sound mind is the mind 
that can embrace equally great things and small. — Johnson. 

15. With reference to this habit of reading, I make bold 
to tell you that it is your pass to the greatest, the purest, 
and the most perfect pleasure that God has prepared for his 
creatures. — Trollope. 

16. A rushing, roaring sound was heard along the ocean, 
whose surface was first dimpled, next ruffled, and finally 
covered with a sheet of clear, white, and spotless foam. 

— Coojh r. 

17. He most lives 

Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

— Bailey. 

18. Much rain wears the marble. — Shakespeare. 

19. Necessity never made a good bargain. — Franklin. 



ADJECTIVES. 165 

C. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

An adjective is a word used with a noun to des- 
ignate more definitely that for which the noun 
stands. 

A predicate adjective is an adjective used with a 
copulative verb to form the predicate. 

An attributive adjective is an adjective that pre- 
cedes the noun with which it is used. 

An appositive adjective is an adjective that 
immediately follows the noun with which it is 
used. 

A descriptive adjective is an adjective that is 
used to describe the kind or quality of that for 
which the noun stands. 

A quantitive adjective is an adjective that is 
used to distinguish how many there are, or how 
much is contained in that for which the noun 
stands. 

A demonstrative adjective is an adjective that 
is used to direct attention to that for which the 
noun stands. 

An article is a demonstrative adjective that is 
used to point out any one of a group or class of 
persons or things, or point out a particular indi- 
vidual group or class of persons or things. 

The indefinite article is the article that is used 
<o point out any one of a group or class of persons 
or things. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMA It. 

The definite article is the article that is used to 
point out a particular group or class of persons or 
things. 

Comparison is the property of adjectives that 
designates the degree of quality or characteristic 
of that for which the noun stands. 

Degrees of comparison are the different steps of 
comparison. 

The positive degree is the simple form of the 
adjective used as the basis or absolute degree of 
comparison. 

The comparative degree is the form of the ad- 
jective used to designate a quality or a charac- 
teristic as one degree higher or lower than that 
designated by the positive. 

The superlative degree is the form of the ad- 
jective used to designate a quality or a character- 
istic in the degree highest or lowest from that 
designated by the positive. 

Inflectional form of comparison is the form of 
comparison expressed by inflectional endings. 

Less and least may be used with the positive 
degree to express comparison. 

Too and very may be used with the positive 
degree to express an implied comparison. 

Adverbial form of comparison is the form of 
comparison expressed by adverbs in connection 
with the positive degree of the adjective. 






ADJECTIVES. 167 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
I. Classes. 

1. As to position. 

1. Predicative. 

2. Attributive. 

3. Appositive. 

2. As to use. 

1. Descriptive. 

2. Quantitive. 

3. Demonstrative. 

a. Ordinal Numeral. 

b. Cardinal Numeral. 

c. Article. 

1. Definite. 

2. Indefinite. 

II. Comparison. 

1. Degrees. 

1. Positive. 

2. Comparative. 

3. Superlative. 

2. Forms. 

1. Inflectional. 

a. Regular. 

b. Irregular. 

2. Adverbial. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IV. VERBS. 
A. CLASSES OF VERBS. 

A verb is a word used to assert something about 
some person or thing. (See 30.) 

A verb usually expresses action ; as, — 

Petty laws breed great crimes. — Ouida. 

A verb is sometimes used to express a state ; as, — 
She sleeps ! My lady sleeps. — Longfellow. 

Auxiliary 204. Note that the verbs in full-faced type in 
Verbs. ^.] ie following sentences have lost their own mean- 
ing, and are used to help the verbs with which 
they are joined in the expression of their meaning. 
Such verbs are called auxiliary verbs. 

1. The advice that is wanted is generally unwelcome. 

— Johnson. 

2. Difficulties are meant to rouse, not discourage. 

— Cha/nning. 

3. In all ages solitude has been called for, has been 
flown to. — Disraeli. 

Notional 205. Verbs that retain their meaning in express- 
Verbs. m g an action are called notional verbs ; as. — 

1. We see the world, each of us. with our own sight, ami 
make from within us the world we see. — Thackeray. 

2. By attention, ideas are registered on the memory. 

(Review 35.) —Locke. 



VERBS. 169 

206. A transitive verb is one that requires an Transitive 
object to complete the idea of the action expressed Verb, 
by the verb. 

Transitive is from the Latin transitivus — a going 
over, and refers to the idea that the action expressed 
by the transitive verb generally goes over and ter- 
minates on an object; as, — 

1. Pedantry crams our heads with lumber. — Colton. 

2. We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal. — Smith. 

Note whether the idea expressed by the transitive 
verbs in the following sentences can be said to go over 
and terminate on objects : — 

1. The rich man's son inherits cares. — Lowell. 

2. Every life has some secret pain. — Clianning. 

3. Blown roses hold their sweetness to the last. — Dryden. 

4. These possess wealth as sick men possess fevers. 

(Review 36.) —Johnson. 

207. An intransitive verb is one that does not intransitive 
require an object to complete the idea of the action Verb, 
expressed by the verb ; as, — 

I was born an American, I live an American, I shall die 
an American. — Webster. 

208. Many verbs are used either as transitive or 
intransitive verbs. Some intransitive verbs may 
be used as transitive verbs, and nearly all transitive 
verbs may be used as intransitive verbs. 

1. For I know that Death is a guest divine 

Wbo shall drink my blood us 1 drink this wine. 

— Winter. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. He was a bold man that first ate an oyster. — Swift. 

3. Strive mightily, but eat and. drink as friends. 

— Shakespeare. 

Note that the verbs drink and ate in foregoing sen- 
tences (1) and (2) are transitive in use. 

Note that in foregoing sentence (3) the same verbs 
are intransitive in use. 

1. The man who can overcome his own terror is a hero 
and more. — Macdonald. 

2. Youth and health have withstood well the voluntary 
hardships of her lot. — Eliot. 

3. Four gray walls and four gray towers 
Overlook a space of flowers. — Tennyson. 

4. I ran over their cabinet of minerals. — Addison. 

5. I was told to look after you once, and I mean to do so. 

— Kingsbury. 

6. All great men come out of the middle classes. 

— Emerson. 

Note in the foregoing sentences that intransitive 
verbs are formed into transitive verbs by prefixing 
prepositions to intransitive verbs, as in sentences (1), 
(2), (3), or by joining prepositions with transitive 
verbs, as in sentences (4), (5), (0). 

1. He sleeps his last sleep, he has fought his last battle. 

—Heath. 

2. Your old men shall dream dreams. — Bible. 

3. Creator Venus . . . 

Beneath the sliding sun thou runn'st thy race. 

— Dryden, 

Cognate 209. Note from the foregoing sentences that 
Objects. some intransitive verbs may become so far trail- 



VERBS. 171 

sitive verbs as to admit of an object noun of 
kindred meaning. Such objects are called cognate 
objects. 

Cognate is the from Latin cognatus — related or akin. 

As nearly all transitive verbs are also used as intran- 
sitive verbs, any possible classification of reasons for 
change from transitive to intransitive verbs would 
prove more misleading than helpful. 

Certain verbs are most frequently used with it as a 
subject ; as, it rains, it snows, it hails, it grows dark, it 
lightens, it thunders, etc. (See page 109.) 

210. Such verbs used in this way are called impersonal 
impersonal verbs. Verbs. 

(For the verbs, meseems and methinks, see page 110.) 

Most of these verbs are also used with other subjects, 
as, — ■ 

1. Tears rained from our eyes. 

2. Orders were thundered in our ears. 

(Review 37.) 

A few intransitive verbs have sometimes an incom- 
plete meaning, and at such times are used to connect 
their subjects with the predicate nouns and adjectives 
which with these verbs are used to form predicates; 
as, — 

1. Nothing at times is more expressive than silence. 

— Eliot. 

2. Society became my glittering bride. 

And airy hopes my children. — Wordsworth. 

Copulative 

211. Such verbs are called copulative verbs. Verbs. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Name the transitive, intransitive, impersonal, com- 
plete, and incomplete verbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. But there are times when patience proves at fault. 

— Brof iii inj. 

2. Peace rules the clay when reason rules the mind. 

Collin*. 

3. The dreams which nations dream come true. 

— Lowell. 

4. No friendship can excuse a sin. — Taylor. 

5. Literature is the fruit of thinking souls. — Carlyle. 

6. We knew it would rain, for the poplars showed 
The white of their leaves. — Aldrkh. 

7. A true poem is a gallery of pictures. — Lubbock. 

8. Truth is tough ; it will not break like a bubble at a 
touch. — Holmes. 

9. Silence is the consummate eloquence of sorrow. 

— Winter. 

10. Prose is words in best order. Poetry is the best 
words in the best order. — Coleridge. 

11. Before men made us citizens, great Nature made us 
men. — Lowell. 

12. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action 
by stealth and to have it found out by accident. — Lamb. 

13. An obstinate man does not hold opinions, but they 
hold him. — Pope. 

14. Blessed is that man who knows his own distaff and 
has found his own spindle. — Holland. 

B. VOICE. 

Name each noun in the following sentences thai is 
used as the name of the doer or agent of the action 
expressed by the verb. 



VERBS. 173 

Name each noun in the following sentences that is 
used as the name of the object of the action expressed 
by the verb. 

( 1. Bees gather honey. 

( 2. Honey is gathered by bees. 

( 1. Birds build nests. 

( 2. Nests are built by birds. 

J 1 . Horses draw wagons. 

\ 2. Wagons are drawn by horses. 

Note that the two sentences in each of the foregoing 
groups are used to express the same thought. 

Note that in the first sentence in each group the name 
of the agent is the subject of the verb, and the name 
of the object of the action is the object of the verb. 

Note that in the second sentence in each of the fore- 
going groups the noun used as the object of the action is 
the subject of the verb, and the noun used as the agent 
is the subsequent of the preposition by. 

Compare forms of verbs in sentences (1) and (2) of 
foregoing groups, and note that different forms of the 
verb are used, and that these forms designate whether 
the subject represents the agent or the object of the 
action expressed by the verb. 

212. The form of the verb used to designate Voice, 
whether the subject is the agent or the object of 

the action expressed by the verb is called voice. 

Voice is from the Latin vocare — to utter or express 
by voice. 

213. The voice of the verb used to designate Active 
that the agent of the action is the subject of the 
verb is called the active voice. 



Voice. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Active is from the Latin activus — serving to express 
the performing of an action. 

Passive 214. The voice of the verb used to designate 

Voice. ^] iat th. e object of the action is the subject of the 
verb is called the passive voice. 

Passive is from Latin passivus — serving to express 
the receiving or suffering of an action. 

State the reason why only transitive verbs can have 
a passive voice. 

Specify the nouns and pronouns in the following sen- 
tences that are used as the agents or the objects of the 
action expressed by the verb. Also name each verb, 
and tell whether it is formed in the active or in the 
passive voice. 

1. Memory delights old age. 

2. Fair faces need no paint. 

3. Fools are taught by experience. 

4. Cats hide their claws. 

5. Wise men are governed by reason. 

6. Quiet sleep feels no foul weather. 

7. No advice is needed by lucky men. 

8. They were tanned by the sun. 

9. The empty vessel makes the greatest sound. 

10. He who sows corn will never reap grapes. ' 

11. The sin is avoided by him who avoids the temptation. 

12. Hungry horses make a clean manger. 

13. He who has good health has great wealth. 

14. Shame is hardened by public reproof. 

15. All debts arc paid by him who dies. 

16. Shallow waters make most noise. 



VERBS. 175 

Change the following sentences with verbs in the 
active voice to corresponding sentences with verbs in 
the passive voice : — 

1. Death keeps no calendar. 

2. A cunning knave needs no broker. 

3. Friends need no formal invitation. 

4. The sleeping fox catches no poultry. 

5. You take every bush for a bugbear. 

6. He lights the candle at both ends. 

Change the following sentences with verbs in the 
.passive voice to corresponding sentences with verbs in 
the active voice : — 

1. No man is flattered by adversity. 

2. A great fire is kindled by a little wind. 

3. No bones are broken by soft words. 

4. Temptation is prevented by constant occupation. 

5. Speedy journeys are made by discreet stops. 

6. Friends are tried by adversity. 

C. MODE. 

1. Heaven blesses humble earth. — Piatt. 

2. Heaven bless your expedition. — Shakespeare. 

3. Bless the hand that gave the blow. — Dryden. 

1. Note the uses and the forms of the verb, bless, in 
the foregoing sentences. 

2. Note that the action expressed by the verb, 
blesses, in sentence (1) is presented to the mind as the 
statement of a, fact. 

3. Note that the action expressed by the verb, 6?e*«, 
in sentence (2) is presented to the mind as the state- 
incut of a thought. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Note that the action expressed by the verb bless 
in sentence (3) is presented to the mind as the state- 
ment of a command or exhortation. 

Mode. 215. The use or form of a verb that indicates 

how the action or being expressed by the verb is 
presented to the mind is called mood or mode. 

Mode is from the Latin modus — meaning manner, 
and refers to the way or manner or mode in which the 
action expressed by the verb is presented to the mind. 

Note that the action expressed by each of the verbs 
in full-faced type in the following sentences is presented 
to the mind as an actual fact. 

1. A good companion makes good company. 

2. A rich man's failings are covered with money. 

3. Humility often gains more than pride. 

Note that the action expressed by each of the verbs 
in full-faced type in the following sentences is presented 
to the mind as ufact assumed to be true. 

1. Though one grain fills not the sack, it helps. 

2. If the old dog barks, he gives counsel. 

3. Though the fox runs, the chickens have wings. 

Note that the action expressed by each of the verbs 
in full-faced type in the following sentences is presented 
to the mind in the form of a question asking for a fact. 

1. What is freer than a gift ? 

2. Who will hang the bell about the oat's neck ? 

3. Is no coin good silver but your money ? 



VERBS. 177 

216. The use or form of a verb which indicates indicative 
that the action or being expressed by the verb is Mode, 
presented to the mind as a fact is called the indica- 
tive mode. 

Indicative is from the Latin indicativus — serving to 
point out, and refers to its use in pointing out or direct- 
ing attention to the facts expressed by the verb. 

Note that the action expressed by each of the verbs 
in full-faced type in the following sentences is presented 
to the mind not as a fact, but as a thought ; that is, 
something thought of. 

1. God deliver me from the man of one book. 

2. Though modesty be a virtue, bashfulness is a vice. 

3. If a fool have success, it ruins him. 

217. The use or form of a verb which indicates Subiunctive 
that the action or being expressed by the verb is Mode, 
presented to the mind as something thought of is 

called' the subjunctive mode. 

Subjunctive is from the Latin subjunctivus — joined 
to, and refers to the fact that this mode is usually, but 
not always, used in subjoined or subordinate sentences. 

1. Note that the writer of foregoing sentence (1) 
does not state by the form of the verb, deliver, whether 
he does or does not need to be delivered, but states the 
thought that if need does come, then he prays or desires 
or wishes to be delivered. 

2. Note that the writer of sentence (2) by the form 
of the verb, be, neither affirms nor denies that modesty 
is a virtue, but simply states the thought as conceded 
or in doubt, then asserts bashfulness is a vice. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Note that the writer of sentence (3) b} r the form 
of the verb, have, does not assert that a fool will or will 
not succeed, but simply states the thought of a supposed 
success, then asserts the fact that it will ruin him. 

Subjunctive 218 - Note from the following sentences that the 
in subjunctive mode may be used in the principal 

Principal , 

Sentences, sentences. 

1. Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done. 

2. Heaven reward your goodness. 

3. God help the poor. 

Subjunctive 219 - Note m the following sentences that the 
in Noun subjunctive mode may be used in noun clauses. 
Clauses. 

1. Command that these stones be made bread. 

2. Whether he come or not is left undecided. 

3. Would that he were safe at home. 

4. It will be to our credit that he want nothing. 

Subjunctive 22 °- Note f rom the following sentences that the 

in subjunctive mode may be used in adverbial clauses. 
Adverbial 
Clauses. 1- ^ money be not your servant, it will be your master. 

2. Though the heavens be glorious, yet the}- are not all 
stars. 

3. The army was under arms lesl they be attacked. 

4. Let the truth spread till it reach every laud and every 
sea. 

Note. — The subjunctive mode is gradually falling 
into disuse among modern writers and speakers. 

Note that the action expressed by the verbs in full- 
faced type in the following sentences is presented to the 
mind as a statement of a command. 



VERBS. 179 

1. Stand not upon the order of your going, 
But go at once. — Shakespeare. 

2. Come one, come all, this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. — Scott. 

Note that the action expressed by the verbs in full- 
faced type in the following sentences is presented to 
the mind as a statement of entreaty. 

1. Help me, Cassius, or I sink ! — Shakespeare. 

2. Visions of glory, spare my aching sight. — Gray. 

Note that the action expressed by the verbs in full- 
faced type in the following sentences is presented to 
the mind as the statement of a request. 

1, Never tell your resolution beforehand. — Selden. 

2. Bear welcome in your eyes. — Shakespeare. 

221. The use or form of the verb which indi- 
cates that the action or being expressed by the 
verb is presented to the mind as the statement of 
a command, an entreaty, or a request, is called the 
imperative mode. 

222. Name each verb in the following; sentences 
and tell in what mode it is : — 

1. Your words bring daylight with them when }'ou 
speak. — Eliot. 

2. If youth be a defect, it is one that Ave outgrow only 
too soon. — Lowell. 

3. Blessed are the horny sons of toil. — Id. 

4. Flame is magnificent though it feed upon the homes 
of men. — Stedman. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Read much, but not many works. — Hamilton. 

6. Hold the fleet angel fast until he bless thee. — Cotton. 

7. If he have not a friend he may quit the stage. 

— Bacon. 

8. It was well said that envy keeps no holidays. — J<(. 

9. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

— Shakespeare. 

10. Accuse not Nature, 

She hath done her part; do thou but thine. — Milton. 

11. Nurture your minds with great thoughts. 

— Beaconsfidd. 

12. Bless not thyself only that thou wert born in Athens. 

— Browne. 
D. TEXSE. 

Note the time and state of action (complete or in- 
complete) expressed by each of the verbs in full-faced 
type in the following sentences : — 

r 1. Necessity creates industry. 
I. \ 2. Necessity created industry. 
I 3. Necessity will create industry. 

Note the time anil state of action (complete or in- 
complete) expressed by each of the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

r 1. Necessity has created industry. 
II. < 2. Necessity had created industry. 

I 3. Necessity will have created industry. 

Note that in foregoing groups, I. and II.,- eacti of 
the verbs in sentence (1) expresses present time, cadi 
of the verbs in sentence (2) past time, and each of the 
verbs in sentence (3) future time. 

Note that each of the verbs in group IT. designates 
the action as completed at the time expressed by the 
verb. 






VERBS. 181 

223. The form of the verb that is used to clesig- Tense, 
nate the time, or both the time and the state of 
action expressed by the verb, is called tense. 

Tense is from Old French tens (temps') — time. 

The tenses of the verb in foregoing group, I., do not 
designate the state, but only the time of the action 
expressed by the verb; hence are named from the basis 
of the time of the action expressed by the verb, as : — 

1. Necessity creates. Present tense. 

2. Necessity created. Past tense. 

3. Necessity win create. Future tense. 

The tenses of the verb in foregoing group, II., desig- 
nate not only the time, but also the state of the action 
expressed by the verb, hence are named from the basis 
of both the time and the state of action expressed by 
the verb, as : — 

1. Necessity has created. Present perfect tense. 

2. Necessity had created. Past perfect tense. 

3. Necessity will have created. Future perfect tense. 

Observe the foregoing tense forms, and note that the 
present and past tenses have the only inflected tense 
forms. The other tenses are formed with the aid of 
auxiliary verbs. 

Using he as subject, write out the tense forms of the 
verb kill, killed, to express the following conditions of 
time, or time and state of action : — 

1. Action completed in the past time. 

2. Action performed in the future time. 

3. Action completed in the future time. 

4. Action performed in the present time. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Action completed in the present time. 

6. Action performed in the past time. 

The foregoing sentences are in the indicative mode, 
active voice. 

Name the verbs in the active voice, indicative mode, 
in the following sentences, and tell the tense of each : — 

1. A bear will not attempt to fly. — Swift. 

2. It is not so correct to say that he (Shakespeare) 
speaks from Nature as that she speaks through him. — Pope. 

3. The young moon had fed her exhausted horn with 
the sunset's fire. — Shelley. 

4. Love has made its best interpreter a sigh. — Byron. 

5. I warmed both hands against the fire of life. 

— Landor. 

6. Prayer will make a man cease from sin, or sin will 
entice a man to cease from prayer. — Bunyan. 

7. A nightingale dies for shame if another bird sings 
better. — Fronde. 

8. Hero worship exists, has existed, and will forever 
exist universally among mankind. — Carlyle. 

9. Polished brass will pass upon more people than rough 
gold. — Chester field. 

10. God enters by a private door into every individual. 

Ellli rsnrt. 

11. And, Father Cardinal, I have heard you say. 
That we shall see and know our friends in heaven ; 
If that be true, I shall see my boy again. 

— Skakespi are. 

Present Tense. 

Present 224 - Observe in the following sentences that the 
Tense, present tense may be used to designate that which 
the verb is used to express : — 



VERBS. 183 

1. As actually taking place at a present time (1). 

2. As taking place at some future time, but stated 
in the present for vividness of expression (2) and (3). 

3. As stating a general truth or custom belonging 
to all time (4) and (5). 

4. As taking place in past time, but pictured to the 
mind as present for the sake of giving vividness of 
expression (6). 

1. The noonday quiet holds the hill. — Tennyson. 

2. But fifty years hence, when Truth gets a hearing, the 
muse of history will put Phocion for the Greek . . . 

— Phillips. 

3. Traitor, I go, but I return. — Croly. 

4. The heart is wiser than the intellect. — Holland. 

5. Earth is but the frozen echo of the silent voice of 
God. — Hageman. 

6. The anchors were weighed, the great hull swayed in 
the current, the bell strikes ; the wheels revolve, the signal 
gun gives back its echoes in upon every structure along the 
shore ; and the Arctic glides joyfully forth from the Mersey 
and turns her prow to the winding channel and begins her 
homeward run. The pilot stood and men saw him. 

— BeecJier. 

Past Tense. 

225. Observe in the following sentences that the p ast 
past tense may be used to designate that which Tense. 
the verb is used to express : — 

1. As taking place at some time before the present, 
as a single act. 

2. As a customary act taking place at a time before 
the present. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Then sculpture and her sister arts revived ; 

Stone leaped to form, and rocks began to live. — Pope. 

2. In this fool's paradise he drank delight. — Crabbe. 

Future Tense. 
Future 226 - Observe in the following sentences that the 
Tense, future tense may be used to designate that which 
the verb is used to express : — 

1. As actually taking place some time after the 
present (1), (2). 

2. As stating a general truth belonging to all time 
(3), (4). 

3. As stating a mild command (5). 

4. As stating a customary or repeated action (6). 

1. We shall meet in happier climes, and on a safer shore. 

— Addison. 

2. To-morrow the dreams and flowers will fade. — Moore. 

3. A suppressed resolve will betray itself in the eye. 

— Eliot. 

4. A wise man will make more opportunities than he 
finds. — Beacons ft eld. 

5. You (Sherman) will proceed with as little delay as 
possible to Memphis, Tennessee, taking with you one 
division of your present command. — Grant. 

6. They will go to Sunday-school through storms their 
brothers are afraid of . . . They will stand behind a table 
at a fair all day. — Holmes. 

Note. — In colloquial English the present tense witli 
an adverb referring to future time is quite commonly 
used instead of the future tense ; as, — 

1. I leave to-morrow on an early train. 

2. He starts at sunrise. 



VERBS. 185 

3. I am going abroad next month. 

4. I remain in the city next winter. 

Perfect Tense. 

227. Observe in the following sentences that the Perfect 
perfect tense is used to designate that which the Tense. 
verb is used to express : — 

1. As action completed and performed in the present 
time (2). 

2. As completed action as repeated and reaching to 
the present time (1). 

3. As action completed and belonging to all time, 
but stated in the present time (3). 

1. I have long looked for one fit to grow by my side. 

— Cooper. 

2. Now I have found him. — Id. 

3. God has lent us the earth for our life. — RusMn. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

228. Note from the following sentence that the p ast 
past perfect tense is used to designate that which Perfect 
the verb is used to express as action completed in 

the past time before an assumed past time. The 
assumed past time may be either expressed or 
implied. 

1. .The star that had blazed so brightly over the world 
Avent down in blood, and the "bravest of the brave" had 
fought his last battle. — Headley. 



229. Note from the following sentence that th 



Future 
Perfect 



future perfect tense is used to designate that which Tense. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the verb is used to express as action completed in 
the future before an assumed future time. The 
given future time may be expressed or implied. 

I. When that crisis shall come, the colossal fabric of 
the British Empire will have given way under its always 
accumulating weight. — Sewa/rd. 

Give the tense of each verb in the following sen- 
tences and state the particular use of each : — 

1. I had wandered in at noontide when all nature is 
peculiarly quiet. — Irving. 

2. God's mills grind slow but sure. — Herbert. 

3. Joy comes and goes, hope ebbs and Hows 
Like the wave. — Arnold. 

4. You will therefore permit me to repeat emphatically 
that Marley was as dead as a door nail. — Dickens. 

5. The allegory of Bunyan has been read by many 
thousands with tears. — Macaulay. 

6. His blood has been very hot, but it has had time to 
cool. — Cooper. 

7. As a general he marshaled the peasant into a vet- 
eran, and supplied by discipline the absence of experience. 

— Phillips. 

8. He that lives upon hopes will die fasting. 

— Thackeray. 

9. A good man will avoid the spot of any sin. 

— Johnson. 
10. In politics what begins in fear usually ends in folly. 

— Coleridge. 

II. Where law ends tyranny begins. — Chatham. 

12. Genuine wit implies no small amount of wisdom and 
culture. — Harvey. 

13. Events of all sorts creep or fly exactly as God 
pleases. — Cowper. 



VERBS. 



187 



E. PERSON. 

Note from the verbs in following sentences (1), (2), 
(3), that some forms of the verb are used to denote 
whether that expressed by the verb has reference to a 
subject in the relation of the first, the second, or the 
third person. 

1. I am enjoying my privileges. 

2. You are testing your abilities. 

3. He is developing great powers. 

4. Waste makes want. 

5. Quick landlords make careful tenants. 

230. Such a modification of the verb is called Person. 
person. 

Note from the verbs in foregoing sentences (4), (5), 
that some forms of the verb are used to denote whether 
that expressed by the verb has reference to one or to 
more than one person or thing. 

231. Such a modification of the verb is called 
number. 

The modifications of a verb for person or number are 
limited to a few forms, but under the assumption that 
the verb is used to distinguish the action expressed by 
its subject both in person and in number. These rela- 
tions may be said to exist even in the verb forms that 
are not modified. On such a basis the verb must be in 
the first, second, or third person, and in the singular or 
plural number. 



Number. 



232. The forms of the verb used to distinguish 
person and number by inflection are found only in 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the active voice and in the indicative mode as 
follows : — 

1. The second person, singular number, has the end- 
ings, st and est, in the present and past tenses : as : — 

Thou strivest; thou readest; thou lovedst. 

2. The third person, singular number, has the end- 
ings, s, th, or eth, in the present tense ; as : — 

She loves, he readeth, he doth. 

3. s is the regular ending in the third person, sin- 
gular number of the present tense, indicative mode, 
active voice. 

Note. — The endings, st and est, of the second per- 
son, singular number, are rarely used, and th and eth 
are no longer used except in poetry or impassioned 
prose. These endings are sometimes called Old Form 
endings. 

Designate the inflected verb endings of verbs in the 
following sentences, and state whether they arc common 
or Old Form endings : — 

1. He is gentle that doth gentle deeds. — Chaucer. 

2. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

— Shakespeare. 

3. " There is no God," the foolish saith. — Mrs. Brown ing. 

4. Life hath more awe than death. — Bailey. ' 

F. VERBALS. 

Verbal. Note that the words in full-faced type in the fol- 

lowing sentences are verb forms used cither as nouns or 
as adjectives : — 



VERBS. 



189 



1. Thinking is very far from knowing. 

2. A dog living is better than a lion dead. 

3. To labor is to live. 

233. Such forms are called verbals. 

234. The verbal which, used as a noun, expresses infinitive. 
the action or condition denoted by the verb, with- 
out directly asserting it, is called an infinitive. 

(See § 39.) 



Note that there are different forms of infinitives in 
the following sentences : — 

1. To buy and to sell is but to win and lose. 

2. To beg a courtesy is to sen liberty. 

1. Buying and selling is but winning and losing. 

2. Begging a courtesy is selling liberty. 

235. Note that one form consists of to + a verb 
form, or the same form of the verb without to. 
This form is called the simple infinitive, or in- 
finitive. 

236. Note that the other form consists of the 
simplest form of the verb with ing affixed. This 
form of the infinitive is called the gerund. 

237. To is not necessarily a characteristic sign 
of the simple infinitive. In early English to was 
not used with the infinitive, and in present usaue 
is generally omitted before the infinitive, after the 
verbs, may, can, see; trill, shall, hear; Id. dare } feel; 
bid, mast, make, need, and do; as, — 



Gerund, 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. I dare do all things that may become a man ; who 
dares do more is none. — Shakespeare. 

2. Let us be merciful as well as just. — Longfellow. 

238. The sign of the infinitive in Early English 
was an, which in a shortened form is found to-day 
in such expressions as, he has gone a-hunting, 
a-wooing, a-Jishing, etc. 

Note that the verbs in the following sentences are 
used as adjectives : — 

1. Then came lovely spring . . . flooding the earth with 
flowers. — Longfellow. 

2. And Hope enchanted smiled and waved her golden 
hair. — Coivper. 

Participles. 239 - The verbal which, used as an adjective, 
shares in the construction of the verb to which it 
belongs is called a participle. (See 47.) 

240. Infinitives are verb nouns; participles are 
verb adjectives. 

241. The simple infinitives and gerunds are the 
present and the perfect, and are in the active and 
passive voices ; as, — 

(to) give; (to) have given; (to) be given; (to) have 

been given. 

given; having given; being given ; having been given. 

242. The participles are the present, the past, 
and the perfect, and are in the active and passive 

voices. 

Active, giving given having given 

Passive, being given given having given 



VERBS. 191 

Note. — The present active participle ends in ing ; 
the past participle generally ends in d, t, or n. 

Gerund is from the Latin gerere — to bear or to 
carry, and has reference to a gerund as carrying or 
bearing some of the characteristics of a verb. 

243. The gerund is sometimes called the verbal 
noun, but that name would seem to specify the 
naming rather than the expressing of the action. 

The gerund should perhaps be placed in a distinct 
class of verbals, as it is in several languages, but the 
uses of the early English gerund have become so inter- 
woven with the infinitive and gerund uses that it has 
seemed more desirable to classify the gerund as a kind 
of infinitive. 

244. Note from the following sentences that a 
gerund may be used as a subject or as an object of 
a verb or with a preposition. 

1. Knowing is seeing. — Locke. 

2. Cease vowing and sighing, the night is nigh gone. 

— Montgomery. 

3. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble. 

— Carlyle. 
As the gerund and the present participle are alike in 
form, the specific use in each case must be the deter- 
mined tesl for these verbals. 

(Noun.) Suffering for a friend doubles friendship. 
(Gerund.) 

(Adjective.) Standing pools gather tilth. (Participle.) 

While the forms of the gerund and the present par- 
ticiple are similar, they are not identical, as an inquiry 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

into the derivation of the endings and the historical 

development of these verbals will clearly reveal them 
to be separate forms with separate uses. 

Note. — In such compound forms as walking stick, 
fishing rod, hiding place, etc., the verbal Forms are 
gerunds and not participles, and mean not a stick that 
walks, but a stick for walking, etc. 

Abstract nouns formed from verbs and ending in ing 
may readily be mistaken for gerunds, and the distinc- 
tion is not at all times easily apprehended, as it is based 
on the inquiry as to whether the naming or the express- 
ing idea of the action dominates in the form. 

1. If the questioned form has an object, it must be 
a gerund. 

2. If it has not an object and is modified by the 
definite article or limited by the preposition of, with 
its subsequent, it can generally be assumed to be an 
abstract noun ; as, — 

1. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the 
sun. — Longfellow. 

2. All of us have cause to wail the dimming of our 
shining star. — Shakespeare. 

3. One must spend time in gathering knowledge to give 
it out richly. — Stedman. 

Name the infinitives, gerunds, participles, and ab- 
stract nouns in the following : — 

1. I shall cheerfully bear the reproach of having de- 
scended below the dignity of history. — Macaulay. 

2. And the miser bees are busy hoarding golden honey. 

— Aldrich. 

3. For next to being a good poet is the power of under- 
standing one. — Longfellow. 



VERBS. 193 

4. But winter lingering chills the lap of May. 

— Goldsmith. 

5. To be of no church is dangerous. — Johnson. 

6. It needs a great nature to bear the weight of a great 
gratitude. — Ouida. 

7. Half the failures in life come from pulling one's horse 
when he is leaping. — Hood. 

8. Learning makes a man fit company for himself. 

— Yoitng. 

9. The law is a glass, not to make me beautiful, but to 
show me my deformities. — Hill. 

10. To choose time is to save time. — Bacon. 

11. Ivy twines the crumbling wall to decorate decay. 

— Bailey. 

12. Prayer is the spirit speaking truth to truth. — Id. 

13. The truest self-respect is not to think of self. 

— Beecher. 

G. CONJUGATION. 

245. The regular arrangement of verb forms 0oniu°-a- 
and phrases used in the expression of the relations tion. 
of voice, mode, tense, person, and number, is called 
conjugation. 

Conjugation is from the Latin conjugare — to join 
together. 

246. The form of conjugation in the active voice, Common 
and the one to which reference has been made thus Form. 
Ear in the explanation of modes and tenses, is called 

the common form. 

247. There is, however, another form of conju- Progressive 
gation in the active voice which is constructed by Form, 
joining the present participle of the verb to the 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

different forms of the conjugation of the verb be f 
and is used to denote action as continuing or pro- 
gressing at the time designated by the auxiliary 
verb. This is called the progressive form. 

Principal 248 - The forms of a verb needful for the pur- 
Parts, pose of building up or constructing the different 
parts of a conjugation are called the principal parts 
of a verb. 

249. The principal parts of a verb are, — 

I. Present indicative or infinitive. (Active.) 
II. Past indicative. (Active.) 
III. Past participle. 
The present or simple form of the principal parts is 
the root form of the verb, and is generally found in the 
present indicative or infinitive, or in the imperative or 
subjunctive modes. 

Note. — Sometimes the present active participle is 
given as a principal part of the verb, because it is 
needed in the construction of the progressive form of 
the verb. This is not essential, as the present active 
participle is always the root jform of the verb + ing 
according to the following: — 

1. i? final when silent and not preceded by a vowel 
is dropped before adding ing; as, hoping, loving, etc. 

2. Words of one syllable, or words of more than one 
syllable accented on the last syllable, when they end in 
a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant before adding ing; as, running, wit- 
ting, forgetting, etc. 

3. Otherwise ing is added directly. 



VERBS. 195 

250. A verb that lias not all its principal parts Defective 
is called a defective verb. Verb. 

251. A verb that has more than one form for Redundant 
any of its principal parts is called a redundant verb. Verb. 

252. Verbs that change the vowel of the present old Con- 
to form the past indicative, and do not make any jugation. 
further change, are called strong verbs, or verbs of 

the old conjugation. 

The past participle of verbs of the old conjugation 
formerly ended in en, but many of these verbs have lost 
the characteristic ending. 

253. Verbs that acid t, d, or eel to the present to ^ Q on _ 
form the past indicative are called weak verbs, or jugation. 
verbs of the new conjugation. 

The endings t and d are shortened forms of te and de 
which are old forms of the past tense of the verb do. 

TT -, tit , te j . t dreamt 

He dream did = dream + = dream + = 

de cl dreamed. 

The vowel e before final d is the connecting vowel 
of the conjugation which is omitted before the ending t. 

The verbs of the old conjugation are the oldest in 
the language. All new verhs mining into the language 
in modern times are formed according to the construc- 
fcioD of the new conjugation. 

254. Verbs whose past tense and pasl participle Regular 
are formed by adding (/ or ed to the present are Verbs, 
called regular verbs. 



196 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Irregular 255 - Verbs whose past tense and past participle 
Verbs, are not formed by adding d or ed to the present 
are called irregular verbs. 

256. The following list of old conjugation verbs 
is given for reference. When there is a regular 
verb form in any of the parts, it is indicated by the 
letter R. When there are two or more forms in 
any of the principal parts, they are given in the 
order of their importance in common usage. 

Old Conjugation - Verbs. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


abide 


abode 


abode 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke R 


awoke R 


bear (bring forth) 


bore 


born 


bear (carry) 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


( began 
( begun 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bid 


J bade 
j bid 


bidden 
bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


f bitten 
t bit . 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


( broke 
( brake 


broken 


burst 


burst 


burst 


chide 


chid 


( chidden 

(rl'id 


choose 


chose 


chosen 





VERBS. 


li 


PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


cleave (to split) 


(" cleft 
(clove R 


cleft 
cloven R 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


dig 


dug R 


dug R 


do 


did 


done 


draw- 


drew 


drawn 
( drunk 


drink 


drank 


-' drank 
( drunken 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forebore 


foreborne 


forget 


forgot 


f forgotten 
\ forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


(got 
( gotten 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went l 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung R 


hung R 


heave 


hove R 


hove R 


hold 


held 


held 


know 


knew 


known 


lie 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


l \Y.m, p 


tsl tense of wend, 


to go. 



198 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 

ring 

rise 

run 

see 

seek 

seethe 

sell 

shake 

shine 

shoot 

shrink 
sing 

sink 

sit 
slay 

slide 

sling 

slink 

smite 

speak 

spin 

spring 

stand 
stave 
steal 
stick 
sting 



PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


j rang 
X rung 


rung 


rose 


risen 


ran 


run 


saw 


seen 


sought 


sought 


sod R 


sodden /! 


sold 


sold 


shook 


shaken 


shone R 


shone B 


shot 


shot 


( shrank 
( shrunk 


shrunk 

shrunken 


< sang 

\ sung 
( sunk 
( sank 


sung 

sunk 
sunken 


sat 


sat 


slew 


slain 


slid 


j slid 

( slidden 


slung 
\ slunk 
( slank 


slung 

slunk 


\ smote 
~\ smit 


smitten 
smit 


\ spoke 

( spake 


spoken 


spun 
\ sprang 
( sprung 

stood 


spun 

sprung 

stood 


stove R 


stove R 


stole 


stolen 


stuck 


stuck 


stung 


stung 





VERBS. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


stink 


( stank 
( stunk 


stunk 


stride 


strode 


( stridden 
| strid 


strike 


struck 


struck 
stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


swim 


J swam 
( swum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tore 


torn 


thrive 


throve 


thriven 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


tread 


trod 


(trod 
( trodden 


wake 


woke R 


woke R 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove R 


\ woven 
( wove R 


win 


wi m 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



199 



Irregular Verbs of New Conjugation. 

257. The following list comprises the irregular 
verbs of the new conjugation, and is given according 
to the plan stated in the foregoing list. 



PR] SENT. 


PAST. 


PABT PARTK tl 


bend 


bent R 


Lent R 


bereave 


bereft R 


bereft R 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


beseech 


besought R 


besought R 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built R 


built R 


burn 


burnt R 


burnt R 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


clothe 


clad R 


clad R 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dream 


dreamt R 


dreamt R 


dwell 


dwelt R 


dwelt R 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


gild 


R gilt 


R gilt 


gird 


girt R 


girt R 


grave 


R 


R graven 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


hew 


R 


R hewn 


hide 


hid 


\ hidden 

1 hid 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept . 


kneel 


knelt R 


knelt R 


knit 


R knit 


R knit 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


lean 


R leant 


R leant 


learn 


R learnt 


R learnt 



VERBS. 



201 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


leap 


R leapt 


R leapt 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


light 


R lit 


R lit 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid • 


pen 


R pent 


R pent 


put 


put 


put 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


rive 


R 


R riven 


say 


said 


said 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


sew 


R 


R sown 


shave 


R 


R shaven 


shear 


R shore 


R shorn 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoAV 


R 


shown R 


shred 


shred R 


shred R 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slit 


slit 


slit 


sow 


R 


sown R 


speed 


sped R 


sped R 


Spell 


R spelt 


R spell 


spend 


spent 


spent 



202 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT. 

spill 
spit 
split 



B spilt 
spit 
spat 

split 



( spit ) 
( spat j 



PAST 


run [i iii.i: 


li 


spilt 




spat 




split 



CONJUGATION OF VERB HAVE. 

258. As the verb have, which is used as an auxil- 
iary verb in the construction of some conjugation 
forms, has some unusual contractions with the in- 
flectional endings, the present and past tenses are 
given at this time. 





Principal Parts. 






PRESENT. 


past. 




PAST PARTICIPLE 


have 


had 




had 




Indicative Mode. 




SINGULAR. 


Present Tense. 




PLURAL. 


1. I have 

2. You have (thou hast) 
3 He has 


1. 

3. 


AVe have 

You have 
They have 


SINGULAR. 


Past Tense. 




PHRAL. 


1. I had 

2. You had 

3. He had 


(thou hadst) 


1. 
2. 

3. 


We had. 
You had 
They had 



J fust is a contracted form of ha rest. 
Jin* is a contracted form of haves, 
J/ml is a contracted form of haved. 
Iluilst is a contracted form of ha/vedest. 



VERBS. 203 

There is also an old form of the third person, singu- 
lar number of the present tense ; viz. hath, which is a 
contracted form of haveth. 



259 



). 


CONJUGATION OF VERB BE. 




Principal Parts. 


PRESENT. 


PAST. PAST PARTICIPLE 


am, be 


was been 



Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Sign = root form of verb (partly inflected). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am 1. We are 

2. You are (thou art) 2. You are 

3. He is 3. They are 

Past Tense. 
Sign = past tense (principal part). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I was 1. We were 

2. You were (thou wert or wast) 2. You were 

3. He was 3. They wer< 



Future Tense. 

Sign = ' + root form of verb. 
mil 



1. I shall be 1. Wr shall be 

2. STou will be (thou wilt be) 2. Y>u will he 

3. lie will be 3. They will be 



20-4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Sign = have (partly inflected) -f- past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have been 1. We have been 

2. You have been (thou hast been) 2. You have been 

3. He has been 3. They have been 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Sign = had -\- past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I had been 1. "We had been 

2. You had been (thou hadst been) 2. You had been 

3. He had been 3. They had been 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Sign = + have + past participle. 

will 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been 

2. You will have been 2. You will have been 

(thou wilt have been) 

3. He will have beeu 3. They will have been 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Sign = root form of verb (not inflected). 

SINGULAR. 1'IIKAL. 

1. I be 1. We be 

2. You be (thou be) '2. Yon be 

3. He be 3. They be 



VERBS. 205 

Past Tense. 
Sign = past tense, principal part (not inflected). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I were 1. We were 

2. You were (thou wert) 2. You were 

3. He were 3. They were 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Sign = have (not inflected) + past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I have been ~ 1. We have been 

2. You have been 2. You have been 

(thou have been) 

3. He have been 3. They have been 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Sign = had (not inflected) + past participle. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. T had been 1. We had been 

2. You had been 2. You had been 

(thou had been) 

3. He had been 3. They had been 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Sign = simple root form of verb. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Be (thou or you) Be (you or ye) 

VERBALS. 

I. Infinitives. 

1. Sim J tie. 

1. 1'rt'siiii. Sign = voot form of verb; (>") be. 

2. Perfect. Sign=Ziave+pas1 participle; (to) have been. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Gerunds. 

1. Present. Sign = root form of verb -\-ing : being. 

2. Present. Sign=/tai'jw/+past participle; having been, 

II. Participles. 

1. Present. Sign = root form of verb 4- ing; being. 

2. Past. Sign = principal part of verb; been. 

3. Perfect. Sign =Jiaving+ past participle; having been. 

260. The conjugation of the verb fo is in reality 
a composite conjugation made up of the remnants 
of three different verb roots; viz., be, (ban), am, 
(art, is, are), and ivas (loere). 

261. Note from the foregoing conjugation forms 
that shall and to ill are used in the formation of 
future tenses, and the verb, have, is used in the 
formation of perfect tenses and verbal forms in the 
perfect. 

262. The verb be is used as a notional verb 
when signifying existence or when used as a copu- 
lative verb ; as, — 

1. Man's life is as it was and as it ever will be. — Carlyle. 

2. Where liberty dwells there is my country. — Franklin. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB KNOW. 

Give and apply the tense signs and verbal formations 
given in connection with the verb be in the formation 
of the active voice of the verb know. 





Principal Parts. 




PRESENT. 


past. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


know 


knew 


known 



VERBS. 207 

ACTIVE VOICE. (Common Form.) 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense, 

singular. plural. 

1. I know 1. We know 

2. You know (thou knowest) 2. You know 

3. He knows 3. They know 

Past Tense, 

singular. plural. 

1. I knew 1. We knew 

2. You knew (tkou knewest) 2. You knew 

3. He knew 3. Tkey knew 





EUTURE 
SINGULAR. 


Tense. 


PLURAL. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall know 
You will know 

(thou wilt know) 
He will know 






1. 

2. 

3. 


We shall know 
You will know 

They will know 




Present 


Per 


fect 


Tense. 




singular. 








PLURAL. 


1. 
2, 


I have known 
You have known 






1. 
2. 


We have known 
You have known 



(thou hast known) 
3. He has known 3. They have known 

Past Perfect Tense. 
singular. plural. 

1. I had known 1. We had known 

-. You had known 2. You had known 

(thou hadst known) 
."». lie had known 3. Thev had known 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future Perfect Tense, 
singular. plural. 

1. I shall have known 1. We shall have known 

2. You will have known 2. You will have known 

(thou wilt have known) 

3. He will have known 3. They will have known 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense, 
singular. plural. 

1. I know 1. We know 

2. You know (thou know) 2. You know 

3. He know 3. They know 

Past Tense, 
singular. plural. 

1 I knew 1. We knew 

2. Yon knew (thou knew) 2. You knew 

3. He knew 3. They knew 

Present Perfect Tense, 
singular. plural. 

1. I have known 1. We have known 

2. You have known 2. Yon have known 

(thou have known) 

3. He has known 3. They have known 

Past Perfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL, 


1. I had known 


1. We had known 


2. You had known 


2. You had known 


(thou had known) 




3. He had known 


3. They had knowi 



VERBS. 



209 



Imperative Mode. 



SINGULAR. 

Know (you or thou) 



PLURAL. 

Know (you or ye) 



I. Infinitives. 

1. Simple. 

1. Present. 

2. Perfect. 

2. Gerunds . 

1. Present. 

2. Perfect. 

II. Participles. 



VERBALS. 



To know, know 

To have known, have known 



Knowing 
Having known 



1. Present. Knowing 

2. Past. Known 

3. Perfect. Having known 

263. The progressive form of the active voice is 
constructed by joining the present participle of a 
verb to the conjugation of the verb be. 

The present gerund and the present and past parti- 
ciples are wanting in the progressive form. 

Construct the active, progressive form of the verb 
know. 

264. The passive voice of a transitive verb is 
constructed by joining the past participle of the 
verb to the conjugation of the verb be } with a 
single exception, the past participle being the same 
in the passive as in the active voice. 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Construct the passive voice of the verb know. 

265. There is a progressive form of the passive 
voice in the present and past tenses of the indica- 
tive. It is formed by joining the present passive 
participle to the corresponding tenses of the verb 
be ; as, — 

The machine is being made. 
The machine was being made. 

Construct the passive, progressive tenses of the verb 
know. 

266. There is an old verb phrase which is still 
used as an equivalent of these foregoing progres- 
sive forms of verbs ; as, — 

The machine is making = is being made. 

Making in the preceding expression is not a present, 

active participle, but is a present, active gerund, and 
is a contracted form of a-making ; as, — 

The machine is making = The machine is a-making. 

267. Analogous to constructions found in Ger- 
man and French, the present and past tenses of 
certain intransitive verbs expressing motion, as 
come, go, etc., may be formed with the present 
and past tenses of the verb be + past participle 
instead of have and had with past participle; as, — 

I am come = I have come. 
He is gone = He 1ms gone. 
They were gone = They had gone. 



VERBS. 



211 



268. The synopsis of a verb is the regular 
arrangement of verb forms and phrases showing 
the modes and tenses of a verb in a single person 
and number. 

Write out the synopsis of the regular verb love in 
the first person, singular number. Place corresponding 
tense forms opposite each other, and voice forms in 
three columns, as follows : — 

I. Active Voice. II. Active Voice. III. Passive Voice. 
(Common Form) (Progressive Form) 

Write out the verbals, active and passive, of the 
regular verb save. 



H. POTENTIAL VERB PHRASES. 

269. Verb phrases made up of may, might, can, 
could, must, shall, should, will, would, with infini- 
tives, and used to denote power, ability, possibility, 
or necessity, are called potential verb phrases. 1 

270. Some are accustomed and prefer to re- 
gard these potential verb phrases as mode forms 
constituting what is called the potential mode. 

271. The tenses of the potential mode and their 
formation are as follows: — 

1. Present = may, can, must + the present infinitive. 

2. Past = might, could, would, should + present infinitive. 

3. Present perfect — may. can, must 4- perfect infinitive. 

*t. I'asl perfect = might, could, would, should -f perfect 

infinitive. 

1 See Notes to Teachers, 9. 



212 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



272. The progressive form of the potential mode 
in the present and past tenses has be with the 
present participle instead of the present infinitive, 
and in the present perfect and past tenses, have 
been with the present participle instead of the 
perfect infinitive. 

273. To such as prefer to regard potential verb 
phrases as mode forms, the discussion of the fol- 
lowing verb forms and their uses has only to be 
regarded as a discussion of the auxiliaries of the 
potential mode, and the sum of the uses of these 
auxiliaries, the true definition of the potential 
mode. 



274. 



May. 



PRESENT. 

may 



Principal Parts, 
past. 
might 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 



Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense, 
singular. 

1. I may 

2. You may (thou may est) 

3. He may 

Past Tense. 



plural. 

1. We may 

2. You may 

3. They may 



1. I might 1. We might 

2. You might (thou mightst) 2. You might 

3. He might 3. They might 



VERBS. 213 

275. May originally was the past tense of a May. 
verb signifying to have power or freedom to do a 
thing. May is now used to denote the absence of 

any hindrance to an action. 

276. Might originally was the past perfect tense Might. 
of the same verb. 

Note the general uses of may and might in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. You may be witty, but not satirical. — Greeley. 

2. " You may imitate," says Balzac, " but you may never 
counterfeit." — Higginson. 

3. Defeat may be victory in disguise. — Longfellow. 

4. Art may make a suit of clothes, but nature must pro- 
duce a man. — Hume. 

5. Sisters and brothers, little maid, 

How many may you be? — Wordsworth. 

6. May you live happily and long for the service of your 
country. — Dryden. 

7. He who does evil that good may come pays a toll to 
the devil to let him into heaven. — Hare. 

8. Earnest men never think in vain, though their 
thoughts may be errors. — Lytton. 

9. Let us be silent so we may hear the whisper of the 
gods. — Emerson. 

277. Note in the foregoing sentences that may 
with an infinitive is used, — 

1. To denote permission (1) (2). 

2. To denote power or possibility (3) (4). 

'■'>. To modify or soften the abruptness of a ques- 
tion (j5). 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. As an equivalent of the subjunctive. 

1. To express desire or wish ((>). 

2. In sentences where the action denoted by the verb 
refers to a time future to a given presenl time, and 

where also the occurrence of the action is assumed 
as doubtful (7) (8) (9). 

Might. 1. One might say that he Avas playing the cradle song of 

his mind. — Allen. 

2. For of all sad words of tongue or pen 

The saddest are these, "It might have been." 

— WhitHer. 

3. I might not be admitted. — Shakespeare. 

4. Certain as this, ! might my days endure 

From age inglorious and black death secure. — Pope. 

5. It was my secret wish that he might accompany us. 

— Byron. 

278. Note in the foregoing sentence that might 
has in general the same uses as may ; viz. : — 

1. Possibility (1) (2). 

2. Permission (3). 

3. Used as an equivalent to the subjunctive. 

1. To express desire or wish (4). 

2. In sentences where the action denoted by the verb 

refers to a time future to a given past time, and 
where also the occurrence of the action is 

assumed as doubtful (5). 

279. Can. 

Principal Pahts. 

TRESENT. PAST. PAST TAKTICirLE. 

can could 



VERBS. 215 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense, 
singular. plurai/. 

1. I can 1. We can 

2. You can (thou canst) 2. You can 

3. He can 3. They can 

Past Tense, 
sinc.ular. plural. 

1. I could 1. We could 

2. You could (thou couldst) 2. You could 

3. He could 3. They could 

280. Can originally was the past tense of a verb can. 
signifying to know or to know how to do a thing. 

Can is now used as signifying to be able to do a 
thing. 

281. Could is from con. an early form of can, 4- could. 
de = coude = coude, with I (ignorantly inserted to 

make the form analogous with the forms should 
and would), coulde = could. 



Note the general uses of can and could in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

1. A great artist can paint a great picture on a small Can. 
canvas. — Wunier. 

2. No language can express the power and beauty and 
heroism of a mother's love. — ( liapin. 

3. Creation is great and cannot be understood. — Arnold. 

4. Humanity cannot be degraded. — Beaconsfield. 

282. Observe in the foregoing sentences that can 
is used to designate, — 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Power or ability (1) (2). 

2. Possibility (3) (4). 

Could. 1- He (Homer) could not want sight who taught the 

world to see. — Denham. 

2. 0. could I flow like thee and make thy stream 
My great example as it is my theme. — Id. 

3. I wish I could walk along your front walk and drop 
into your study for a moment. — Lowell. 

4. If I were inventing these things, I could be wonder- 
fully humorous over them. — " Mark Twain." 

5. If a man could halve his wishes, he would double his 
happiness. — Franklin. 

283. Note in the foregoing sentences that could 
is used as an equivalent of the subjunctive to 
express power or possibility : — 

1. In a statement with condition implied (1). 

2. In sentences of wish or desire with an implied 
possibility of realization (2) (3). 

3. In conditional sentences where the condition is 
assumed as untrue. 

1. In protasis of condition (;">). 

2. In apodosis of condition (4). 

Must. 

Must. 284. Must originally was the past tense of the 
verb, mo tan, signifying to he allowed or to be free 
to do a thing. Must is now used as a present 
tense of the indicative mode, and has the same 
form for all persons of the singular and the plural 
number. 



VERBS. 217 

285. Mote, the third person, singular, of the 
verb motan, is still found in poetry and in the 
expression, "So mote it be." 

286. Must with the present infinitive has the 
significance of a present tense, but with the perfect 
infinitive has the force of a past tense. 

Note the more general uses of must in the following 
sentences : — 

1. In this world man must be anvil or hammer. 

— Longfellow. 

2. You must confine yourself within the modest limits of 
order. — Shakespeare. 

3. Popularly, what everybody says must be true ; what 
everybody does must be right. — Tylor. 

287. Note in the foregoing sentences that must 
is used with the following meanings : — 

1. To be obliged to do a thing (1). 

2. To be required to do a tiling (2). 

3. To give certainty to a thing (3). 

Name the potential verb phrases in the following 
sentences and explain the significance of the notional 
verb in each place : — , 

1. A friend may well be reckoned the masterpiece of 
nature. — Emerson. 

2. Heaven might have spared one torment when we fell. 

— OrenviUe. 

3. It is my humble prayer that I may be of some use in 
my day and generation. — Ballon. 

4. Chaucer, I confess, is a rough diamond, and must be 
polished ere he shine. — Dryden. 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. One can love any man that is generous. — Hunt. 

6. There is no blessing thai can be given to an artisan's 
family more than the love of books. — Bright. 

7. To know the pains of power we must go to those 
who have it. — Colton. 

8. You can never plan the future Irv the past. — Burke, 

9. If men could learn from history, what lessons it 
might teach us. — Coleridge. 

10. With the talents of an angel a man may be a fool. 

— Young. 

11. Faithfulness can feed on suffering and know no 
disappointment. — Eliot. 

12. The navigation of the Mississippi we must have. 

— Tefferson. 

13. Had I a heart for falsehood framed, I never could 
injure you. — Sheridan. 

14. The young may die, but the old must. — Longfellow. 

15. Promises may get friends, but it is performance that 
must nurse and keep them. — Feltham. 

16. Nothing can be done well in art except by vision. 

— 1 iii shin. 

17. No one but an adventurous traveler can know the 
luxury of sleep. — Beaconsfield. 

18. You must take the will for the deed. $wijt 

19. Learn to live well, that thou may'st die so too. 

— Denham. 

20. We neither know nor judge ourselves ; others may 
judge, but cannot know us. — Collin*. 

21. We may give more offense by our silence than even 
by impertinence. — Hazlitt. 

22. Oh, might I kiss the mountain rains 
That sparkle on her cheek ! — Wordsworth. 

23. An honest man speaks truth though it may give 
offense; a vain man, in order that it may. — lladilt. 



VERBS. 



219 



24. Would that I might wear out life like thee 
'Mid bowers and brooks. — Bryant. 

25. In a certain sense I hope that it may be said of me 
that I am a lover of my species. — Lamb. 

26. No fountain is so small that heaven may not be im- 
aged on its bosom. — Hawihornl. 

27. When I forget my sovereign, may my God forget me. 

— Thurlow. 

28. May you rule us long ; 

May children of our children say, 

"iShe wrought her people lasting good." — Tennyson. 



288 




Shall 

Principal Parts. 






PRESENT. 

shall 


past. 
should 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 






Indicative Mode 






1. 
2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 
BINGULAB. 

I shall 

You shall (thou shalt) 

He shall 


1. 

2. 
3. 


PLURAL. 

We shall 
You shall 
They shall 


1. 
2. 
3. 


BINGULAB. 

I should 
You should 

He should 


Past Tense. 
(thou shouldst) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


plural. 
We should 

You should 
They should 



289. Shall originally was the past tense of a 
verb meaning to oive, and its usual meaning in 
early English was to be wider <>/i/l</</(n>,i to do a. 
thing, or to be impelled to do a thing. 



Shall. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

290. Shall is no longer used as an independent 
verb, but is used with an iiilinitive, and in such 
use has lost, to a great extent, its early meaning 
when used in the first person, but has retained 
that meaning to a marked degree in the second 
and third persons. 

291. From the early meaning of shall has been 
gradually developed that idea of future time which 
it is used to express, with the infinitive, in the 
future tenses of the indicative ; as, — 

I shall to go — I owe it to go — I am impelled to go — T am 
to go — I shall go. 

292. It has already been noted that shall with 
the infinitive is used in forming future tense forms. 
(See 259.) 

293. Shall in the first person, and sometimes in 
the second and third, is used with infinitives to 
form future tense forms. 

294. Inasmuch as shall in the second and third 
persons is joined with infinitives to form verb 
phrases used to denote promise, command, deter- 
mination, and confident prediction, shall with a 
like form cannot be employed to definitely express 
simple futurity, and for that reason <|iiih' as much 
as any other, its use as a future tense form in the 
second and third persons is coming to be generally 
avoided by careful writers and speakers. 



VERBS. 221 

Note in the following sentences the general uses of 
shall with an infinitive: — 

1. I shall tread in the footsteps of my illustrious prede- 
cessor. — Van Buren. 

2. He declares that he shall win the purse for you. 

— Bulwer. 

3. Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou shalt never 
want a friend to stand by thee. — Irving. 

4. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neigh- 
bor. — Bible. 

5. He shall marry Beatrix or tell the reason why. 

— Thackeray. 

6. Thou shalt lift up thy green boughs again. Thou shalt 
shoot forth from thy roots new flowers again. — Beecher. 

7. Well, good-by, till next spring, if next spring shall 
ever come to us. — Lowell. 

8. Come one, come all, this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. — Scott. 

9. He best can paint them who shall feel them most. 

— Pope. 

295. Note from the foregoing sentences that 
shall, with an infinitive, may be used to denote, — 

1. Simple futurity (future tense) (1). 

2. The future time in indirect discourse when the 
subjects of verb of principal and subordinate sentences 
are the same (2). 

3. Promise (3). 5. Determination (5). 

4. Command (4). 6. Confident prediction (6). 
7. As an equivalent of the subjunctive mode. 

1. In conditional sentences. 

1. Protasis of condition i 7). 

2. Acidosis of condition (8). 

2. In relative clauses having an implied eondition (9). 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Should. 



Should. 296. Should, the past tense of shall, is from the 
early form scul — shut + de = shulde = shoulde 
= should. (Compare German schulde, a debt.) 

297. Should does not express past time unless 
joined with a perfect infinitive to form a verb 
phrase. 

298. Should in a verb phrase has the same gen- 
eral uses as shall, but retains in all relations more 
or less of the original meaning of obligation. 

Note the general uses of should with the infinitive in 
the following sentences : — 

1. The essay should be pure literature, as the poem is 
pure literature. — >S.m Hit. 

2. Every person whom we approach should be the better 
for us. — Channing. 

3. I should be much of a hound if I lost my gratitude 
to Herbert Spencer. — Stevenson. 

4. Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling 
with the conviction that he should win in the end. — harm <l. 

5. If we had got here as soon as I expected, I should 
have met yon in Paris. — Lowell 

6. And now am I, if a man should speak truly, little 
better than one of the wicked. — Shakespeare. 

7. Life was intended to be so adjusted that the body 
should be the servant of the soul. — Holland. 

8. No one can express thee, though all should approve 
thee. — Mrs. Browning. 

0. A man might pass for insane who should see things 
as they are. — Channing. 



VERBS. 223 

299. Observe in the foregoing sentences that 
should, with an infinitive, may be used to denote, — 

1. Duty, obligation, authority, etc. (1) (2) (3). 

2. The idea of future time in subordinate sentences 
and indirect discourse (4). 

3. As an equivalent of the subjunctive mode. 

1. In conditional sentences. 

1. Protasis of condition (6). 

2. Apodosis of condition (5). 

2. In relative clauses implying a condition (9). 

3. In subordinate sentences expressing result, pur- 

pose, concession, etc. (7) (8). 



300. 




Will. 












Principal Parts. 








PRESENT. 




past. 


past participle. 




will 




would 




— 








Indicative Mode. 










Present Tense. 








SINGULAR. 








PLURAL. 


1. 


I will 






1. 


We will 


2. 


You will (thou wilt) 


2. 


You will 


3. 


He will 

SINGULAK. 




Past Tense. 


3. 


They will 

PLDRAL. 


1. 


1 would 






1. 


We would 


2. 


You would 


(tl 


ou wouldst) 


2 # 


You would 


3. 


lie would 






3. 


They would 



301. Will is from an old verb meaning to choose, 
to desire, or to be willing to do a thing. 



Will 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

302. Will is used with the infinitive to form future 
tenses (see 259), or to form potential verb phrases. 

303. Will, used with the infinitive, retains, with 
more or less distinctness, its early meanings when 
used in the first person, but these early meanings 
are not well preserved in the second and third per- 
sons of the verb. 

304. In poetry and colloquial English / will is 
sometimes shortened to Til, and / should to I\l, 
we will to ivell, etc. 

305. From these early meanings of will have 
been developed that idea of future time which, 
with the infinitive, will is used to express in the 
future tenses of the indicative mode ; as, — 

You will to go — you choose to go — yen are willing t<> 
go — you are ready to go — you will go. 

306. The use of wdl with infinitives in future 
tense forms has already been shown. (See 226.) 

Note in the following sentences the general use of 
will in potential verb phrases: — 

1. There stand if thou wilt stand. — Milton. 

2. Flow gently, I'll sing thee a song in thy praise. 

— Hums. 

3. And show me your nest with the young ones in it, 
I will not steal them away. — Ingelow. 

4. Will you permit the orphan ... to offer you a trifle '.' 

— Scott. 

5. Merciful Father, I will not complain. — Miller. 

6. And ye will not come to Me that ye might have life. 

— Bible. 



VERBS. 225 

307. Note from the foregoing sentences that 
will in potential verb phrases is used to express, — 

1. Determination (1). 

2. Promise (2) (3). 

3. Consent or refusal (4) (5). 

4. Willingness (6). 

Would. 

308. Would, the past tense of will, is from wol, would. 
an early form of will, + de, the past tense charac- 
teristic = ivolde = would. 

309. From the early form of will is also formed 
wont (I ivill not) = wol + not. 

Note the general uses of would in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Cholera, scurvy, fever, the wound that would not be 
healed. — Tennyson. 

2. On the slightest suspicion they would cut off the 
hands of the natives for punishment or intimidation. 

—Bancroft. 

3. Goethe said there would be little left of him if he 
were to discard what he owed to others. — Cash man. 

4. Oh, would I were a boy again, 

When life seemed formed of sunny years. — Lemon. 

5. If you would be powerful, pretend to be powerful. 

— Tooke. 
C). If one were constantly to think of death, the business 
of life would stand still. — Johnson. 

7. Thought would destroy their paradise. — Gray. 

8. Men would be angels, angels would be gods. — Pope. 
i). He will lie, sir, with such volubility that you would 

think truth to be a fool. — Shdkespeart 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

310. Observe in the foregoing sentences that 
would is used to denote, — 

1. Determination (1). 

2. Customary action (2). 

3. The idea of future action (time) in indirect (lis 
course (3). 

4. An equivalent of the subjunctive, — 

1. Expressing wish (4). 

2. In conditional sentences, — 

1. In the protasis of condition (5). 

2. In the apodosis of condition with prot- 

asis expressed (6). 

3. In the apodosis of condition with prot- 

asis implied (7) (8). 

3. In subordinate sentences expressing result, pur- 

pose, etc. (9). 

USES OF SHALL AND WILL IN INTERROGATIVE 
SENTENCES. 

311. Think of the original meaning of icill, and 
tell why 10 ill cannot be used in questions of first 
person. 

312. Note in the following interrogative sen- 
tences that shall or will may be used in the second 
or third person. 

313. Note that the form of the answer expected 
to the question determines the choice of shall or 
will; as, — 

1. Shall you decide ? A. T shall. 

2. Will you decide ? A. I will. 



VERBS. 227 

3. Shall he decide ? A. He shall. 

4. Will he decide ? A. He will. 

5. Shall they decide ? A. They shall. 

6. Will they decide ? A. They will. 

314. Note that the same principle may apply to 
these same sentences in indirect questions as the 
subjects of the verbs in the principal and subordi- 
nate sentences are the same. 

1. You say that you shall decide. 

2. You say that you will decide. 

3. He says that he shall decide. 

4. He says that he will decide. 

5. They say that they shall decide. 

6. They say that they will decide. 

315. Note that in the foregoing groups sentences 
(1), (3), and (5), the verb phrases are potential verb 
phrases, and that in sentences (2), (4), and (6), the 
verb phrases are future indicative tense forms. 

316. Note that the same principle may be ap- 
plied in the choice of ivould or should; as, — 

1. You said that you should decide. 

2. You said that you would decide. 

3. He said that he should decide. 

4. He said that he would decide. 

5. They said that they should decide. 

6. They said that they would decide. 

317. Name the potential verb phrases in the 
following sentences, and explain the significance 

of each : — 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. "Give me a chance," says Stupid, "and I will show 
you." — Haliburton. 

2. Homer shall live like Alexander long, 

As much recorded and as often sung. — Pope. 

3. If you would write to any purpose, you must be per- 
fectly free from within. — Emerson. 

4. Give any one a fortune, and he shall be thought a 
wise man. — Scott. 

5. If the tongue had not been framed for articulation, 
man would still be a beast in the forest. — Emerson. 

6. He that would have his virtues published is not the 
servant of virtue, but glory. — CoUon. 

7. I should be quite willing that you should think mo a 
bore if I could only be the means of impressing upon you 
the importance of observation. — Lowell. 

8. Be thou as chaste as ice, as pure as snow, thou shalt 
not escape calumny. — Shakespeare. 

9. They shall have war to pay for their presumption. 

— lit. 

10. Shall they no longer bloom upon the stock of his- 
tory ? — Wordsworth. 

11. Could Ave enter the palace of an old Ionian lord, we 
know what we should see there. — Wroude. 

12. If I can't pray, I will not make believe. — Longfellow. 

13. Shall it not be scorn to me to harp on such a mold- 
er'd string? — Tennyson. 

14. She could not think, but w T ould not cease to speak. 

—Crabbe. 

15. I would rather be right than be president." — Clay. 

16. The cat would eat fish and would not we1 her feet. 

— Heywood. 

17. Herodotus wrote as it was natural he should write. 

— MacatUay. 

18. Mount slowly, sun ! that we may journey long. 

— Wordsworth 



)s m 
net 
Mode. 



VERBS. 229 

318. Change the verbs that are in the subjunc- y erlD£ 
tive mode in the following sentences to equivalent Subjunctive 
potential verb phrases : — 

1. Such happiness, where'er it be known, 
Is to be pitied. — Wordsworth. 

2. Had I known this before we set out, I think I had 
remained at home. — Scott. 

3. America, if she fall, will fall like a strong man. 

— Chatham. 

4. that he 
Were once more that landscape painter, 
That her spirit might have rest. — Tennyson. 

5. A poet without love were a physical and metaphysi- 
cal impossibility. — Carlyle. 

6. Though your sins be red as scarlet, 
They shall be white as snow. — Wordsworth. 

7. I will know 
If there be any faith in man. — Tennyson. 

8. Blood, though it sleep a time, yet never dies. 

— Chaplin. 

9. If a man were sure of living forever here, he would 
not care about his offspring. — Hawthorne. 

10. I would I were dead if God's will were so. 

— Shakespeare. 

11. Blind were we without these. — Wordsicorth. 

12. If our spirit had gone forward, we had all been made 
men. — Id. 

13. Had doting Priam checked his son's desire, 
Troy had 1 n bright with fame and not with fire. — Id. 

14. Our humanity were a poor thing, but for the divinity 
that stirs within us. — Bacon. 

15. A man — be heaven ever praised! — is sufficient for 
himself. — Carlyle. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. 

16. I wish it were never one's duty to quarrel with any- 
body. — Macdonald. 

17. Of all the needs a book has, the i hief need is that it 
be readable. — Trollope. 

18. Let me say amen betimes lest the devil cross my 
prayers. — Shakespeare. 

19. Had there been less suffering, there would have been 
less kindness. — Thackeray. 

20. Virtue were a kind of misery if fame were all the 
garland that crowned her. — Felt on. 

21. Heaven were not heaven, if we knew what it were. 

— Suckling. 

22. Win her with gifts, if she respect not words; 

— Shakespeare. 

23. What hardship had it been to wait an hour? 

— Wordsworth. 

24. I wonder if the lion be to speak. — Shakespeare. 

25. Don't let Effie come and see me till my grave is 
growing green. — Tennyson. 

Potential 319 - Change the potential verb phrases used as 
Verb equivalents of subjunctives in the following sen- 
tences into their subjunctive form: — 

1. The essence of an author is that he should be articu- 
late. — Sioinburne. 

2. Am I mad that I should cherish 

That which bears such bitter fruit? — Tennyson. 

3. Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil 

Be blessed with health and peace and sweet content. 

— Hums. 

4. I wish that the spring would go faster, 
Nor summer bide so late. — Jn>/</<>/r. 

5. Heaven grant that other cities may be gay. 

— Wordsworth. 






VERBS. 231 

6. No ! by Heav'n, I exclaimed, may I perish 

If ever I plant in that bosom a thorn. — O'Keefe. 

7. Galileo would probably not have been persecuted if 
his discoveries could have been disproved. — Whately. 

8. I do desire that we may be better strangers. 

— Shakespeare. 

9. What we earn, God grant, he may have. — Phillips. 

10. Truly this world can go on without us if we would 
but think so. — Longfellow. 

11. I wonder how it is that so cheerful looking a tree as 
the willow should ever have become associated with ideas 
of sadness. — Hamerton. 

12. Lucky he -Avho has been educated to bear his fate, 
whatever it may be, by an early example of uprightness 
and a childish training in honor. — Thackeray. 

13. Institutions may crumble and fall, but it is only that 
they may renew a better youth. — Bancroft. 

14. In order that all men may be taught to speak the 
truth, it is necessary that all likewise should learn to hear 
it. — Johnson. 

15. If a man should happen to reach perfection in this 
world, he would have to die immediately to enjoy himself. 

— Shaw. 

16. Full often wished he that the winds might rage. 

— Wordsworth. 

17. And the whole world would henceforth be 
A wider prison unto me. — Byron. 

18. He would pray that both might die at the same 
moment. — Wordsworth. 

19. I dare not confess that, lest I should compare with 
him in excellence. Shakespeare. 

20. Every god that is admitted into his poem acts a part 
which would have been suitable to no other divinity. 

— Addison. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21. If perchance your faith should fail, 

Look up and you shall see me soon. — Wbrdstvorth. 

22. If I carved my name 

Upon the cliffs that guard my native land, 
I might as well have traced it on the sand. 

— Tennyson. 

320. The following defective verbs and verb 
infinitives should be noted : — 

Ought Ought. 

SINGULAR. . PLURAL. 

1. I ought 1. We ought 

2. You ought (thou oughtest) 2. Vou ought 

3. He ought 3. They ought 

321. Ought was originally a past or a past per- 
fect tense of the early verb, owe, meaning to 
possess, to he in debt, to be obliged. Ought has 
not reference to present time, but is used with a 
perfect infinitive to refer to action in the past 
time, and also has reference to action in past time 
when used in indirect discourse ; as, — 

1. I ought to be satisfied. (Present.) 

2. I ought to have been satisfied. ( Past.) 

3. He said that I ought to be satisfied. (Fast and indi- 
rect discourse.) 

322. Note that the infinitive following ought 
uses the form of the infinitive with to; as, — 

1. Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer. 

— Emerson. 



VERBS. 233 

2. To manage men one ought to have a sharp mind in a 
velvet sheath. — Eliot. 

3. All skill ought to be exerted for universal good. 

— Johnson. 

323. Dare, originally a past tense, is now used Dare. 
as a present tense. (Past tense, durst or dared.) 

Like all present tense verbs from earlier past 
tense forms, it has not the characteristic ending 
s, in the third person, singular number, except 
in rare cases. 

324. The impersonal verb form in the present __ , . 
tense, methhiks (it seems to me), and its past tense 
form, methought (it seemed to me), is from an early 
English verb meaning to appear, and is not directly 
related to the present verb, to think. 

325. Need, meaning to he obliged to do a thing. Need 
has not the characteristic s in the third person, 
singular; as, — 

He need not go. 



326. Need, meaning to be in want of a thing, 
has the characteristic s in the third person, singu- 
lar; as, — 

He needs lud p. 

327. This last form should not be confounded 
with the adverb, needs meaning from necessity; 
as, — 

He must needs go that the devil drives. — Shakespeare. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Do. 328. I. Do with an infinitive is used as an equiv- 

alent of, or a substitute for, the present and pasl 
tenses of the indicative mode, active voice. 

1. As an equivalent in affirmative sentences. 

1. Sweet April showers 

Do bring May flowers. — Tusser. 

2. God did anoint thee with his odorous oil 

To wrestle, not to reign. — Mrs. Browning. 

2. As a substitute in negative sentences. 

1. Science does not know its debt to imagination. 

— Emerson. 

2. I do not love a man who is zealous for nothing. 

— Goldsmith. 

3. As a substitute in interrogative sentences. 

Do you think I was born in a wood, to be afraid of an 
owl? — Swift. 

329. II. Do is used with the imperative mode 
to express emphasis. 

Do not delay ! the golden moments fly. 

— Longfellow. 

330. III. Do is used as a substitute for another 
verb or expression. 

Thus my soul moves eastward as all the heavenly 
bodies do (move eastward). — HoweU. 

Note. — Do with an infinitive is sometimes regarded 
as a verb of emphasis, but it is emphatic only when the 
emphasis of tone is added to it. 



VERBS. 235 

I. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

A verb is a word used to assert something 
about some person or thing. 

An auxiliary verb is a verb that has lost its own 
meaning and is used to help another verb to ex- 
press its meaning. 

A notional verb is a verb that retains its mean- 
ing in expressing an action. 

A transitive verb is a verb that requires an 
object. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not 
require an object. 

An impersonal verb is a verb that has as its 
subject the word it, not referring to any definite 
thing. 

A copulative verb is a verb used to connect 
its subject with that which, with the verb, forms 
the predicate. 

Voice is the form of a verb used to designate 
whether the subject is the agent or the object of 
the action expressed by the verb. 

The active voice is used to designate that the 
agent of the action is the subject of the verb. 

The passive voice is the voice used to desig- 
nate that the object of the action is the subject of 
the verb. 

Mode is the use or form of the verb that indi- 
cates how the action or being expressed by the 
verb is presented to the mind. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The indicative mode is the mode which indi- 
cates that the action expressed by the verb is pre- 
sented to the mind as a fact. 

The subjunctive mode is the mode which indi- 
cates that the action expressed by the verb is pre- 
sented to the mind as a thought. 

The imperative mode is the mode which indicates 
that the action expressed by the verb is presented 
to the mind as the statement of a command, an 
entreaty, or a request. 

Tense is the form of the verb used to designate 
the time, or the time and state of action expressed 
by the verb. 

The present tense is the tense used to designate 
action as taking place in present time. 

The past tense is the tense used to designate 
action as taking place in past time. 

The future tense is the tense used to designate 
action as taking place in future time. 

The present perfect tense is the tense used to 
designate action as completed in present time. 

The past perfect tense is the tense used to desig- 
nate action as completed in past time. 

The future perfect tense is the tense - used to 
designate action as completed in future time. 

Person is the form or use of the verb that desig- 
nates whether the action expressed by the verb 
has reference to a subject in the relation of the 
first, the second, or the third person. 






VERBS. 237 

Number is the form of the verb used to designate 
whether that expressed by the verb has reference 
to one or to more than one person or thing. 

A verbal is a verb form having the construction 
of a verb, but used as a noun or as an adjective. 

An infinitive is the verbal that is used as a 
noun. 

A simple infinitive is the infinitive form with to 
or the same verb form without to. 

The gerund is the infinitive ending in ing. 

A participle is the verbal that is used as an 
adjective. 

Conjugation is the regular arrangement of verb 
forms and phrases used in the construction of voice, 
mode, tense, person, and number. 

The common form of conjugation is the usual 
form of the verb used in the expression of the 
relations of conjugation. 

The progressive form of conjugation is the form 
used to denote the action as continuing or pro- 
gressing at the time designated by the auxiliary 
verbs. 

The principal parts of a verb are the forms of a 
verb needed in the building up or the construction 
of the different parts of the conjugation. 

A complete verb is a verb that has one form for 
each of its principal parts. 

A redundant verb is a verb that has more than 
one form for any of its principal [nuts. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A defective verb is a verb that has not one form 
for each of its principal parts. 

A strong verb (verb of old conjugation) is a verb 
that changes a vowel of the present, and does 
not make any further addition to form the past 
indicative. 

A weak verb (verb of new conjugation) is a verb 
that adds t, d, or ed to the present to furm the 
past indicative. 

A regular verb is a weak verb whose past indi- 
cative and past participle are formed by adding d 
or ed to the present tense. 

An irregular verb is a weak verb whose past 
indicative and past participle are not formed by 
adding d or ed to the present tense. 

OUTLIKE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 

I. As to kind. 

1. Transitive. 

2. Intransitive. 

II. As to use. 

1. Notional. 

2. Auxiliary. 

3. Copulative. 

III. As to modifications. 

1. Voice. 2. Mode. 

1. Active. 1. Indicative. 

2. Passive. 2. Subjunctive. 

3. Imperative. 





VERBS. 


23 


3. 


Tense. 






1. Present. 


4. Present perfect. 




2. Past. 


5. Past perfect. 




3. Future. 


G. Future perfect. 


4. 


Person. 5. 


Number. 




1. First. 


1. Singular. 




2. Second. 


2. Plural. 




3. Third. 





IV. As to formation of principal ptarts. 

1. Strong (old conjugation). 

2. Weak (new conjugation). 

1. Regular. 

2. Irregular. 

V. As to completeness of principal parts. 

1. Complete. 

2. Redundant. 

3. Defective. 

VI. As to form of conjugation. 

1. Common. 

2. Progressive. 



VII. 



Verbals. 

1. Infinitive. 

1. Simple. 
-. Gerund. 

2. Participles 



240 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



331. To parse a verb is to tell its formation, its 
kind, its use, and its modifications. 

Parse the sentence, "Happiness is reflected." 



Happiness 



is reflected 



is a word used as a name, 
hence a 

is used as a name of a class, 
hence a 

is a common noun, the name of 
a quality, hence an 

cannot be referred to sex, hence a 

does not refer to more than one 
thing, hence 

is used as subject of verb is re- 
flected, hence 



has an object (as subject), hence 
is a 

is a verb phrase consisting of 
is, used to help verb reflected, 
hence 

reflected retains its own mean- 
ing, hence 

is used to designate that the 
object of the action is the 
subject of the verb, hence 

is used to designate that the 
action expressed by the verb 
is presented to the mind as a 
fact, hence 



noun 

common 

noun 

abstract 
noun 

neater noun 

singular 
number 

nominative 
case.(Sul)- 
ject nom.) 

transitive 
verb 

auxiliary 
verb 

notional 
verb 



passive 
voice 



indicative 

mode 




VERBS. 



241 



reflected 



is used to designate the action 
as taking place at the present 
time, hence 

is used to designate that the 
action expressed by the verb 
has reference to the same re- 
lation to the subject as the 
person spoken about, hence 

is used to refer to the action 
performed by the verb as re- 
ferring to one thing, hence 

has as its subject the noun hap- 
piness. 

is a composite verb, am, or be, 
teas, been. 

has past tense and past parti- 
ciple formed by adding ed to 
present tense, hence 

has one form for each of its 
principal parts, hence 



present 
tense 



third 
person 



singular 

number 



weak, regu- 
lar verb 

complete 
verb 



332. 



Pausing Summary. 



Happiness is a common, abstract, neuter noun, singu- 
lar number, and nominative case, subject nominative of 
verb is reflected. 

Is reflected is a transitive verb phrase consisting of 
auxiliary verb, is, and notional verb reflected. 

Is is a compositive verb, am or 6e, tens. been. 

Reflected is a complete, regular, weak verb. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Is reflected is found in the passive, indicative, pres- 
ent, third, singular, and has for its subject the noun 
happiness. 

Parse the nouns and verbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Character gives splendor to youth. — Emerson. 

2. Labor humanizes, exalts. — Alcott. 

3. Public opinion is democratic. — Holland. 

4. The future is purchased by the past. — Johnson. 

5. Death had lost its pleasures. — Macaulay. 

6. May this bright flower of Charity display 
Its bloom. — Wordsworth. 

7. Hadst thou less unworthy proved, 

I had loved thee more than ever wife was loved. 

— Tennyson. 



ADVERBS. 243 






V. ADVERBS. 

333. An adverb is a word used with a *verb to Adverbs, 
designate more definitely that which the verb is 

used to express. (See 51.) 

334. Certain adverbs are sometimes joined with 
adjectives or other adverbs to designate more 
definitely the limitations they are used to dis- 
tinguish. (See 52.) 

A. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

335. It has been shown that adverbs may be 
classified according to their meaning. (Review 
page 26 et seq.) 

1. Adverbs of time. (When?) 

Now, to-day, soon, lately, then, never, yet, when, 
as, after, before, hitherto, etc. 

2. Adverbs of place. (Where?) 

1. (From which ?) Whence, thence, hence, etc. 

2. (To which?) Whither, thither, hither, else- 

where. 

3. (At which ?) Here, there, yonder, near, within, 

without; wherein, whereat, etc. 

3. Adverbs of number. (How often?) 

Once, repeatedly, daily, again, often, thrice, etc. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Adverbs of manner. (How ?) 

Well, thus, so, how, ill, as, such, however, slowly, 
sadly, etc. 

5. Adverbs of degree. (How much ?) 

Much, little, almost, nearly, too, very, quite, 
partly, etc. 

6. Adverbs of assertion. (To what extent is asser- 
tion true or untrue ?) 

Surely, probably, possibly, certainly, verily, not, 
perhaps, truly, indeed, yea, nay, etc. 

336. The foregoing lists of adverbs are given 
for reference and for showing the more common 
adverbs belonging to each class. 

337. According to their meaning some adverbs 
belong to two or more classes, hence care must be 
exercised in noting the special meaning of the 
adverb as it is used in the sentence. 

338. Adverbs according to their use or func- 
tion in the sentence may be distinguished as 
follows : — 

Simple 339 - Note that the adverbs in full-faced type in 

Adverbs, the following sentences are used only as modifying 

adverbs. Such adverbs are called simple adverbs. 

1. Every man who observes vigilantly and resolves stead- 
fastly grows unconsciously into genius. — Lytton. 

2. One after one the stars have risen and set. — LoweU. 



ADVERBS. 



245 



340. Note that the adverbs in full-faced type in Demonstra- 



tive 
Adverbs. 



the following sentences have both a modifying and 
a demonstrative use. Such adverbs are called 
demonstrative adverbs. 

1. Now I know in part, then shall I know even as also 
I am known. — Bible. 

2. Darkness there might well 
Seem twilight here. — Milton. 

341. Note that the adverbs in full-faced type in i n t er roe:a- 
the following sentences have both a modifying and tive 
an interrogative use. Such adverbs are called Adverbs * 
interrogative adverbs. 

1. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? — Knox. 

2. Whither is fled the vision of a gleam ? 

Where is now the glory and the dream ? — Wordsworth. 

3. How do ye vary your vile days and nights ? — Hunt. 

342. Note that the adverbs in full-faced type in R e i a ti V e 
the following sentences have both a modifying and Adverbs. 
a relative use. Such adverbs are called relative 
adverbs. 1 

1. Men can be great when great occasions call. — Stedman. 

2. No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good 
home life. — Holland. 

3. The more you are talked about, the less powerful you 
are. — Beaconsfield. 

4. The newspaper is a greater treasure to the people 
than uncounted millions of gold. — Beech&r. 

343. The word the, before the comparative D emonstra . 
more, in sentence (3) is a demonstrative adverb, tive The. 

1 See Notes to Teachers, 10. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and directs attention to the relative adverb the t 

before the comparative less. These words must 

not be confounded with the definite article. They 

are indirect case forms of the original word for 

which that is formed, and which, as has been 

_ , . shown, is now used as a demonstrative and rela- 
Relative . 
The. tive pronoun. Hie uses ot the in sentence (o) 

correspond to the Latin construction, eo . . . quo, 

with comparatives. 

344. Note the construction of than in sentence 
(3). Than was originally used as a relative adverb 
in the sense of when. 

345. The original meaning is implied when than 
is used after comparatives to introduce a sentence 
expressed or implied, which sentence is used as the 
standard of comparison. 

346. Expand sentence (4), and the original use of 
than is seen. 

When uncounted millions of gold is a great treasure to 
the people, the newspaper is a greater treasure to the 
people. 

347. The antecedent of a relative adverb is 
generally a demonstrative adverb expressed or 
implied ; as, — 

INTERROGATIVE. DEMONSTRATIVE. RELATIVE. INDEFINITE. 

where? there where somewhere 

whence? thence whence from some place 





ADVERBS. 


247 


NTKRROGATIVE. 


DEMONSTRATIVE. 


RELATIVE. 


INDEFINITE. 


when ? 


then 


when 


at some time 


whither ? 


thither 


whither 


to some place 


how? 


thus or so 


as, that 


somehow 



When the antecedent of the relative adverb is 
expressed for the sake of emphasis, it follows the 
relative adverb. (Compare 160. ) 

1. When thou canst get the ring upon my finger . . . 
then call me husband. — Shakespeare. 

2. When the broken arches are black as night, 
Then view St. David's rained pile. — Scott. 

3. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be ; and where 
liberty is, there slavery cannot be. — Lincoln. 

348. Yes and no used alone as responsive words 
in answer to interrogative sentences are sometimes 
regarded as adverbs of assertion, — the one the 
adverb of affirmation, and the other the adverb of 
negation. As a part of speech presupposes a sen- 
tence of which it is a part, and as these words in 
such situations are not parts of any sentence 
expressed or implied, it is evident that they cannot 
properly be regarded as parts of speech. They 
arc words representing the corresponding affirma- 
tive or negative statements in answer to interroga- 
tive sentences; as, — 

Are you an American? x . 

I am an American. 



Were you in the army ? 



No. 

1 was not in the army. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

There. 349 - The adverb there is often used in the 
position of the grammatical subject to direct 
attention to the subject following the verb. 

350. Compare this use of there with the use of 
it. (See page 110.) 

1. There is no religion in being unhappy. — Ghanning. 

2. There is no royal road to anything. — Holland. 

Phrase 351 ° Sometimes two or more words are taken 
Adverbs, together and form a phrase adverb ; as, — 

1. Silently one by one in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the 

angels. — Longfellow. 

2. They arrived too late to save the ship, for the violent 
current had set her more and more on the beach. — Irving. 

3. The unrest of dawn impels us to and fro. — Qrady. 

B. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Comparison 352. Many adverbs admit of comparison and 

°f are compared like adjectives. (See page 156.) 
Adverbs. 

353. The greater number of adverbs that admit 
of comparison have the adverbial mode of com- 
parison; as, kindly, more kindly, most Mndly. 

354. A few adverbs have the inflectional form 
of comparison; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

355. The following adverbs have an irregular 
form of comparison : — 





ADVERBS. 


POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


far 


farther 




or further 


ill or badly 


worse 


late 


later 


little 


less 


much 


more 


nigh or near 


nearer 


(rathe) 


rather 


well 


better 






249 

SUPERLATIVE. 

farthest 

or furthest 
worst 

latest or last 
least 
most 
nearest or next 



best 

356. Note 1. — Near, now used as a positive, is in 
reality a comparative form of nigh. 

Note 2. — Rathe, (early or soon) is now practically 
obsolete, although found occasionally in the poets ; 
as, — 

1. Why rise ye up so rathe ? — Chaucer. 

2. Rathe she rose, half cheated in the thought 
She needs must bid farewell to sweet Loraine. 

— Tennyson. 

357. To parse an adverb is, — 

1. To tell its class according to, — 
1. Meaning. 2. Use. 

2. To compare it, if compared. 

3. To state what word or words it modifies. 

Diligence has done well. 
Parse well in the preceding sentence, 
well I is a simple adverb. 

is used to express manner. 

has an irregular form of comparison, well, 

better, best. 
is used to modify the meaning of the verb has done. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Name and parse the adverbs in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. A great writer does not reveal himself here and there, 
but everywhere. — Lowell. 

2. Poetry is evidently a contagious complaint. — Irving. 

3. There are no eyes so sharp as the eyes of hatred. 

—Holland. 

4. Art does not represent things falsely, but truly as 
they appear to mankind. — Buskin. 

5. Sooner or later the world comes around to see the 
truth and do the right. — Hillard. 

0. Can one desire too much of a good thing ? 

— Shakespeare. 

1. When they are at Rome they do there as they see 
done. — Burton. 

8. As a rule, there is no surer way to the dislike of men 
than to behave well where they have behaved badly. 

— Wallace. 

9. The greater a man is, the less he is disposed to show 
his greatness. — Channing. 

10. Rashness is often more the result of cowardice than 
of courage. — Wellington. 

11. Life is but thought. — Coleridge. 

12. Liberty is not the right of one, but all. — Spencer. 

13. The plague of gold strikes far and near. — Browning. 

14. Expectation ends only in heaven. — St. Ki ntijern. 

15. Vigorous exercise will often fortify a . feeble con- 
stitution. — Sigourney. 

16. Example is always more efficacious than precept. 

— John Sim. 

17. A daughter of the gods, divinely tall, 
And most divinely fair. — Tennyson. 

18. Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune. 
And over it softly her warm ear lays. — LoweU. 



ADVERBS. 251 

C. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

An adverb is a word joined to a verb to des- 
ignate more definitely that for which the verb 
stands. 

A simple adverb is an adverb used simply to 
modify or designate more definitely that expressed 
by the word with which it is joined. 

A demonstrative adverb is an adverb that has 
both a modifying and a demonstrative use. 

An interrogative adverb is an adverb that has 
both a modifying and an interrogative use. 

A relative adverb is an adverb that has a modi- 
fying and a relating use. 

Comparison is the property of adverbs used to 
distinguish the different degrees of that which is 
designated by the adverb. 

The positive degree is the degree that is used in 
an absolute sense or as a basis of comparison. 

The comparative degree is the degree that is used 
to express that which is denoted by the adverb as 
one degree higher or lower than that expressed by 
the positive degree. 

The superlative degree is the degree which is 
used to express that which is designated by the 
adverb as in the degree highest or lowest from that 
designated by the positive degree. 

Inflectional comparison is the form of comparison 
thai is expressed by means of inflectional endings 
or changes in the form of adverbs. 



252 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Adverbial comparison is the form of comparison 
expressed by means of adverbs in connection with 
the positive degree of another adverb. 



OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
1. According to meaning. 



1. Time. 

2. Place. 

3. Number. 


4. 
5. 
G. 


Maimer. 
Degree. 
Asserti-on. 


2. According to use. 






1. Simple. 

2. Demonstrative. 


3. 
4. 


Interrogative 

Relative. 


3. According to form. 






1. Simple. 


2. 


Phrase. 


4. Comparison. 






1. Degree. 






1. Positive. 

2. Comparative. 

3. Superlative. 






2. Forms. 






1. Inflectional. 






1. Regular. 

2. Irregular. 






2. Adverbial. 







PREPOSITIONS. 253 



. VI. PREPOSITIONS. 

358. A preposition is a word used to connect a p rer)OS i t i on 
noun or its equivalent to some other part of speech 

in the sentence, and to indicate a relation between 
them. 

359. Originally the preposition was simply a 
local adverb used with a verb to emphasize, or 
make more definite, the meaning of the verb. 1 

360. In the evolution of the preposition three 
distinct stages are clearly evident. 

I. It is placed before, or prefixed to a verb, and its 
meaning is merged in the meaning of the verb. 

1. A valiant man ought not to undergo or tempt a danger. 

— Johnson. 

2. Withhold revenge, dear God, 'tis not my fault. 

— Shakespeare. 

II. It is placed after a verb, and its meaning joined 
to the meaning of the verb. 

1. Ring out the darkness of the land. 

Ring in the church that is to be. — Tennyson. 

2. Putting off the courtier, he put on the philosopher. 

— MUton. 

III. It is placed before a noun or its equivalent to 
indicate its case relation, and has a separate meaning 
and ;i connective force. 

1 Sou Notes to Teachers, 11. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Your real influence is marred by your treatment of 
yourself. — Alcott. 

2. Everything good in a man thrives best when properly 
recognized. — Clark. 

361. The equivalents of nouns with which prep- 
ositions are used are, — 

I. Pronoun. 

Soft words with nothing in them make a song. — Waller. 

II. Adjective. 

The beautiful rests on the foundations of the necessary. 

— Emerson. 

III. Phrase. 

Our material possessions, like our joys, are enhanced in 
value by being shared. — Prentice. 

IV. Clause. 

Never be afraid of what is good. The good is always the 
road to what is true. — Ilauiertou. 

362. The parts of speech to which a preposition 
may connect a noun or its equivalent are, — 

I. Verb or verbal. 

1. Your tongue runs before your wit. — Swift. 

2. Sympathy is two hearts tugging at one load. 

— Parkhurst. 

3. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

— Campbell. 
II. Noun. 

Kindness in us is the honey that blunts the sting of un- 
kindness in another. — I junior. 



PREPOSITIONS. 255 

III. Pronoun. 

For which of these works do you stone me ? — Bible. 

IV. Adjective. 

Gratitude is the rarest of virtues. — Parker. 

V. Adverb (rarely). 

It is seldom that an Egyptian workman can be induced 
to make anything exactly to order. — Lane. 

A. CLxiSSES. 

363. Prepositions are not numerous, and in the 
English language do not greatly exceed fifty in 
number. 

364. In form, prepositions are simple and com- 
pound. 

365. The following prepositions are simple in simple, 
form: at, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, 

till, to, up, with. 

366. Nearly all other prepositions are compound Compound, 
forms composed of simple preposition forms joined 
together, or simple preposition forms prefixed to 

nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; as, into, upon, through- 
out, outside, aboard, beside, along, around, between, 
begond, behind, underneath. 

367. Some present participles and other verb 
forms are used as prepositions ; as. concerning, except- 
ing, touching, respecting, etc.; save, except, past, etc. 

1. I am free from all doubt concerning it. — Tillotson. 

2. Respecting my sermons, I most siiuvivly beg of you 
to extenuate nothing. — Smith. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Phrase 368 - Sometimes two or more words are taken 
Preposition, together and form what is called a phrase preposi- 
tion ; as, — 

1. Out in the yard the lilies of the valley, slipping out of 
their cool sheaths of green leaves, were not more white, 
more fresh. — Allen. 

2. Great eloquence Ave cannot get except from human 
genius. — King. 

3. Over the hills, out of the earth, down from the clouds, 
pours in resistless night. — Curtis. 

369. The phrase prepositions most commonly 
used are : with regard to, by means of, on account of, 
by virtue of, in consideration affront in between, 
instead of, out of, according- to. 

370. The adjectives like and near are frequently 
followed by nouns or equivalents, and have the 
connecting and relating force of prepositions. 
These words, in such cases, cannot be regarded as 
purely prepositions, as their adjective use in the 
sentence, even when followed by a noun, is fre- 
quently as strong as the relation indicated by the 
preposition. Moreover, the adjective near is used 
with such prepositional force in all degrees of com- 

, ,, . parison. These adjectives when used with prepo- 
Adjective r . . 1 J „ * J 

Preposition, sitional iorce may be called adjective prepositions. 

1. A man's best things are nearest him. — MUm s. 

2. They are as like each other as two peas. — Surift. 

3. Men are like Geneva watches with crystal faces which 
expose the whole movement. — Emerson. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



257 



371. So numerous are the relations denoted by 
prepositions, and so various are the relations ex- 
pressed by the same preposition, that a simple and 
practical classification of prepositional relations is 
impossible. These relations can best be learned 
through continued observation, and a classification 
of the various uses of the different prepositions as 
they are met with in literature. 

372. Among the more common and characteristic 
relations expressed by prepositions are time, place, 
source, manner, quality, possession, means, cause, 
reason. 1 

B. PARSING SUMMARY. 

1. Name and state form of preposition. 

2. Point out the terms of relation. 

3. State the kind of phrase formed by nouns and 
preposition. 

4. Tell what the prepositional phrase is used to 
express. 



Parse the prepositional phrases in the following 
sentence : — 

He came from New York to Boston. 



From 



New York 



is a simple preposition. 

shows a relation between, or connects, the verb 
came and the noun New )'<>rJc. 

is a noun in the objective case denoting place 
from which, ami forms, with the preposition 
from, an adverbial phrase modifying verb came. 



1 Scu Mutes to Teachers. L2. 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to is a simple preposition. 

shows a relation between, or connects, the verb 
came and the noun Bost on. 

Boston is a noun in the objective case denoting place 

to which, and forms, with the preposition to, 
an adverbial phrase modifying verb came. 

He was a man of good character. 

of is a simple preposition. 

shows a relation between, or connects, the noun 
man and the noun character. 

character is a noun in the objective case denoting quality, 
and forms, with the preposition of, an adjec- 
tive phrase modifying the noun man. 

Name and parse the prepositions in the following 
sentences : — 

1. Labor for labor's sake is against nature. — Locke. 

2. Judgment is forced upon us by experience. — Johnson. 

3. Nothing great was ever achieved without enthu- 
siasm. — Emerson. 

4. There is a joy in sorrow which none but a mourner 
can know. — Tapper. 

5. They are always in extremes, and pronounce con- 
cerning everything in the superlative. — Watts. 

6. Open suspecting of others comes of secretly con- 
demning ourselves. — Sidney. 

7. Nature through all her works in great degree 
Borrows a blessing from variety. — ( nurchiU. 

8. Labor was appointed at the creation. — Maun. 

9. Nothing but sympathy with society will lead to its 
cure. — Channing. 

10. There he lies with a great beard, like a Russian bear 
upon a drift of snow. — Congreve. 



PREPOSITIOXS. 259 

11. The word rest is not in my vocabulary. — Greeley. 

12. The light upon her face 

Shines from the windows of another world. 

— Longfelloio. 

13. A witty writer is like a porcupine ; his quill makes 
no distinction between friend and foe. — Shaw. 

14. A reader with an ear for melody has a feast spread 
for him in Saxon poetry fit for Apollo. — King. 

15. He who was taught only by himself had a fool for a 
master. — Johnson. 

16. There is no defense against reproach except ob- 
scurity. — Addison. 

17. Good humor may be said to be one of the very best 
articles of dress one can wear in society. — Thackeray. 

18. Upon the Kentucky landscape during these October 
days, there lies this later youth of the year, calm, deep, 
vigorous. — Allen. 

19. You can't order remembrance out of a man. 

— Thackeray. 

20. Keep your working power at its maximum. — Alger. 

21. Nature fits all her children with something to do. 

— Lowell. 

22. A pound of pluck is worth a ton of luck. — Garjield. 

23. A happy genius is the gift of nature. — Dryden. 

24. The dignity of truth is lost with much protesting. 

— Johnson. 

25. Men are people who come in like a child with a piece 
of good news. — Emerson. 

20. To the poetic mind all things are poetical. 

— Longfellow. 

27. So sinks the day star in the ocean lied. — Milton. 

28. Honor and shame from no condition rise; 

Act well your part, there all the honor lies. — /'"/»'. 

29. The true university of these days is a collection of 
books. — ( 'arlyle. 



2G0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

C. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

f 
A preposition is a word used to connect a noun, 

or its equivalent, to some other part of speech 

in the sentence, and indicate a relation between 

them. 

A phrase preposition is two or more words 
taken together to form a preposition. 

An adjective preposition is an adjective that 
has also the form of a preposition. 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF 
PREPOSITIONS. 

I. As to form. 

1. Simple. 3. Adjective. 

2. Compound. 4. Phrase. 

II. As to kind of relation indicated. 

1. Adverbial — when the first term is a verb, 

adjective, or adverb. 

1. Indirect object. 

2. Place from which. 

3. Place to which. 

4. Place in which. 

5. Source, origin, separation. 

6. Means or instrument, agent. 

7. Cause. 

8. Manner, time, price, specification. 

2. Adjective — when the first term is a noun or 

its equivalent. 
1. Quality. 2. Possession. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 261 






VII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

373. A conjunction is a word used to join Ooninnction. 

together sentences or similar parts of the same 
sentence. (See 54.) 

A. CLASSES. 

374. Note in the following sentences that a con- ph raS e 
junction may consist of two or more words taken Conjunction, 
together as one expression; such forms are called 

phrase conjunctions. 

1. Property lias its duties as well as its rights. 

— Drummond. 

2. We are no longer happy as soon as we wish to be 
happier. — Landor. 

3. God puts the excess of hope in one man in order that 
it may be a medicine to the man who is despondent. 

— Beecher. 

375. Note that the two conjunctions in full- Oorx-ela-tive 
faced type in each of the following sentences Conjunction, 
mutually relate to each other. Such conjunctions 

are called correlative conjunctions. 

1. There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking 
makes it so. — Shakesjieare. 

2. Man is neither the vile nor the excellent being which 
he sometimes imagines himself to be. — Beaconsfield. 

.".. Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver. 

— Burke. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. The sun, though it passes through dirty places, yet 
remains as pure as before. — Coke. 

5. The supreme poet will be not alone a seer, but also a 
persistent artist of the beautiful. — Stedman. 

Coordinate 376 - A coordinate conjunction is a conjunction 
Conjunction, that is used to connect constructions of equal 
rank. (See 55.) 

377. Coordinate conjunctions are divided into 
the following classes : — 

1. Copulative (uniting or coupling together the 
ideas or thoughts expressed in the connected construc- 
tions); as, and, both, also, moreover, not only, but also, 
etc. 

Copulative is from the Latin eopulativus — linking 
or connecting together. 

2. Alternative (offering or denying a choice of the 
ideas or thoughts expressed in the connected construc- 
tions); as, either, or; neither, nor; etc. 

Alternative is from the Latin altematw — doing a 
thing alternately or by turns. 

3. Adversative (designating that one of the thoughts 
is opposite or adverse to the other thought expressed 
in the construction); as, but, yet, however, notwith- 
standing, etc. 

Adversative is from the Latin adversativus — contrary 
or opposing. 

4. Illative (designating that one of the thoughts is 
an inference from the other thought expressed in the 
connected construction); as, therefore, hence, conse- 
quently, accordingly, etc. 






CONJUNCTIONS. 263 

Illative is from the Latin illativus — a concluding or 
inferring. 

5. Causal (designating that one of the thoughts is 
a conclusion or a cause or reason of the other thought, 
without at the same time modifying that thought); 
as, for. 

Causal is from the Latin causa — a cause. 

Name, classify, and explain the use of each co- 
ordinate conjunction in the following sentences : — 

1. Speak fitly or be silent wisely. — Herbert. 

2. To keep our secret is wisdom, but to expect another 
to keep it is folly. — Holmes. 

3. The power of association is stronger than the power 
of beauty, therefore the power of association is the power 
of beauty. — Buskin. 

4. For art may err, but nature may not miss. 

— Dryden. 

5. The world is a wheel, and it will come around all 
right. — Beaconsfield. 

G. Our grand business is not to see what lies dimly at 
a distance, but to do what lies clearly at hand. — Carlyle. 

7. Pride is essential to a noble character, and a love of 
praise is one of its civilizing elements. — Beecher.. 

8. Our character is our will ; for what we will we are. 

— Manning. 

9. Fortune does not lend, but sells her wares at full 
market price. — (Jolt on. 

10. Our words have wings, but fly not where we would. 

— Eliot. 

11. We live most on the crust or rind of things. 

— Fr<>iuh . 

12. Tie said, "I will relieve myself and make my point 
good yet or die for it." — Carlyle. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. He blushes ; therefore he is guilty. — Addison. 

14. I came upstairs iuto the world; for I was born in a 
cellar. — Congreve. 

15. Give me hardship, pain, toil, but with them give me 
liberty and I shall not complain. — Giles. 

16. The sculptor does not work for the anatomist, but 
for the common observer of life and nature. — Ruskin. 

17. Talking and eloquence are not the same ; to speak 
and to speak well are two things; a fool may talk, but a 
wise man speaks. — Johnson. 

Subordinate 378 - -A- subordinate conjunction is a conjunction 
Conjunction, that is used to connect a sentence of a lower rank 
to one of higher rank. (See 56.) 

379. A subordinate conjunction has usually two 
distinct uses in the subordinate sentence, — the 
one as a connecting element in the sentence ; the 
other as expressing a clause relation ; that is, a 
substantive, adjective, or adverbial relation. 

380. Subordinate conjunctions are divided into 
the following classes : — 

1. Temporal (Time). When, while, until, as, before, 
ere, till, etc. 

2. Place. Where, wherever, etc. 

3. Manner. How, as, etc. 

4. Cause. For, because, since, as, whereat, etc. 

5. Condition. If, unless, provided, etc. 

6. Concession. Though, although. 

7. Purpose (Final). That, in order that, lest, pro- 
vided that, so, etc. 

8. Result (Consequence). So that, l>nt th<tt, etc. 

9. Demonstrative (Substantive). That. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 265 

381. Observe in the foregoing classification of 
conjunctions that a casual conjunction may be 
either a coordinate or a subordinate conjunction. 

382. To distinguish between the coordinate and 
subordinate conjunction is to determine whether 
the sentence introduced by the causal conjunction 
affirms or gives the reason for the thought ex- 
pressed by the other sentence (coordinate), or 
whether the thought expressed by the other sen- 
tence is the effect of that expressed by the sentence 
introduced by the causal conjunction (subordi- 
nate) ; as, — 

1. TJie season has been good, for the crops are heavy. 

2. Socrates died because he took poison. 

383. Note in the foregoing sentence (1) there 
are two sentences. Note that the second sentence 
of the sentence (1) is an affirmation of or reason 
for the thought expressed by the first sentence. 

384. Note that in the foregoing sentence (2) 
there are two sentences. Note that the thought 
expressed by the first sentence is a statement 
of the effect of that expressed by the second 
sentence. 

385. The causal conjunction of sentence (1) is a 
coordinate causal conjunction. 

386. The causal conjunction of sentence (2) is a 
subordinate causal conjunction. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Name, classify, and explain use of each subordinate 
conjunction in the following sentences, and tell foi 
what kind of clause each subordinate sentence is used : — 

1. A man lias no more religion than he acts out in his 
life. — Beecher. 

2. There are none so low but that they have their tri- 
umph. — Bovee. 

3. Things always seem fair when we look back at them. 

— LoweU. 

4. As the wind was favorable I had an opportunity of 
surveying this amazing scene. — Berkeley. 

5. No ritual is too much, provided it is subsidiary to the 
inner work of worship. — Gladstone. 

6. Thy head is as full of quarrels as an egg is full of 
meat. — Shakespeare. 

7. At the workingman's house hunger looks in but dares 
not enter. — Franklin. 

8. The forests are full of trees before the sea is thick 
with ships. — Brooks. 

9. Think not thy time long in this world, since the 
world itself is not long. — Browne. 

10. Man can be great when great occasions call. 

— Stoddard. 

11. Stay a while that we may make an end the sooner. 

— Bacon. 

12. As the day broke, the scene of slaughter unfolded its 
horrors. — Irving. 

13. Men often call themselves poor, not because they 
want necessaries, but because the}- have nut more than they 
want. —Johnson. 

14. If I am not worth the wooing, I am not worth the 
winning. — Longfellow. 

15. Difficulties spur us whenever they do not check us. 

— Reade. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



267 



1(3. It is I who ought to be angry and unforgiving, for I 
Avas in the wrong. — Thackeray. 

17. Thou hast betrayed thy secret as a bird betrays its 
nest, by striving to conceal it. — Longfellow. 

18. The French say that English ladies have left hands. 

— Emerson. 

19. The shoemaker makes a good shoe because he makes 
nothing else. — Emerson. 

20. We hate some persons because we do not know them, 
and we do not know them because we hate them. — Colton, 



387. To parse a conjunction is to name it, give To e a 
its order, what it expresses, and the elements it Conjunction, 
connects ; as, — 

Hope lightens burdens, but fear makes them heavier. 



but 



is a word used to connect sentences, 
hence a 

is used to connect sentences of equal 
order, hence 

connects sentences expressing thoughts 
opposite or adverse to each other, 
hence 

connects the sentences through con- 
necting the verb lightens to the verb 
fear. 



conjunction, 
coordinate. 

adversative. 



B. PAUSING SUMMARY. 

Bat is a coordinate, adversative con junction, con- 
necting the sentences, "Hope lightens burdens" and 
w> fear makes them heavier,'" by connecting the verb 
lightens with the verb fear, and designating the order 
and meaning of the sentences. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

C. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. 

A conjunction is a word or words used to 
join together sentences or similar parts of the 
same sentence. 

A simple conjunction is a single word used as 
a conjunction. 

A phrase conjunction is two or more words 
taken together as a conjunction. 

Correlative conjunctions are two conjunct inns 
that mutually relate to each other. 

A coordinate conjunction is a conjunction that 
is used to connect constructions of equal rank. 

A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction that 
is used to connect a sentence of a lower rank to 
one of a higher rank. 

A copulative conjunction is a coordinate con- 
junction that is used to unite or couple together 
the ideas or thoughts expressed in the connected 
construction. 

An alternative conjunction is a coordinate con- 
junction which is used to designate that a choice 
of thoughts in the connected construction is either 
offered or denied. 

An adversative conjunction is a coordinate con- 
junction which is used to designate that one of 
the thoughts is opposite or adverse to the other 
thought in the connected construction. 

An illative conjunction is a coordinate conjunc- 
tion which is used to designate that one of the 



CONJUNCTIONS. 269 

thoughts is an inference from the other thought in 
the connected construction. 

A causal conjunction is a coordinate conjunc- 
tion which is used to designate that one of the 
thoughts in the connected construction is a con- 
clusion or the cause or reason of the other thought, 
without at the same time being the modifier of that 
thought. 

A temporal conjunction is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used in the expression of 
time. 

A conjunction of place is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used in the expression of place or 
locality. 

A conjunction of manner is a subordinate 
conjunction that is used in the expression of 
manner. 

A conjunction of cause is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used in the expression of cause 
or reason. 

A conjunction of condition is a subordinate 
conjunction that is used in the expression of a 
supposition or condition. 

A conjunction of concession is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used in the expression of what is 
granted or conceded. 

A conjunction of purpose is a subordinate eon- 
junction that is used in the expression of what is 
designed, intended, or proposed. 



270 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A conjunction of result is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used in the expression of what 
follows as a consequence or result. 

A demonstrative conjunction is a subordinate con- 
junction that is used to represent, point out, or 
introduce a subordinate sentence as a substantive 
clause. 

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF 
CONJUNCTIONS. 



As to composition. 
1. Simple. 



2. Phrase. 



II. As to expression of meaning. 

1. Independent. 2. Correlative. 

III. As to classes. 
1. Coordinate. 

1. Copulative. 4. Illative. 

2. Alternative. 5. Causal. 

3. Adversative. 



2. 



Subordinate. 

1. Temporal. 

2. Manuer. 

3. Place. 
4 Cause. 
5. .Result. 



6. Purpose. 

7. Condition. 

8. Concession. 

9. Demonstrative. 






INTERJECTIONS. 271 



VIII. INTERJECTIONS. 

388. An interjection, as lias been stated, is aj nter j ect i oni 
word or expression used to express feeling, and 

cannot be regarded as a part of speech, which is 
an element of thought. (See 58.) 

389. A phrase interjection (exclamatory phrase) 
may consist of different parts of speech ; such parts 
of speech do not lose their functional use when used 
as part of a phrase interjection, but when the ele- 
ment that they are used to represent is feeling 
rather than thought, it may seem preferable to 
regard the whole phrase expression as an inter- 
jection. 

390. Specify the kind of feeling expressed by 
the interjections in the following sentences : — 

1. 0, ever thus from childhood's hour 

I've seen my fondest hopes decay. — Moore. 

2. But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising 

knell. — Byron. 

3. Bless me ! this is pleasant 
Uiding on the rail. — Saxe. 

4. Softly ! she is lying 

With her lips apart. — Eos/man. 

5. Hurrah! hurrah! hurrah! a single field 
Has turned the chance of war. — MacavXay. 

G. Audio! the universal air 

Seemed lit with ghastly flame. — Hood. 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. And every hand that dealt the blow, 
Ah me ! it was a brother's. — Campbell. 

8. But ! for the touch of a vanished hand 

And the sound of a voice that is still ! — Tennyson. 

9. Ah ! what a shadow is praise. — Charming. 

10. Ha ! ha ! we have heard of the rapids, but we are not 
such fools as to get there. — Gough. 

11. Alas! thy sorrows fall so fast. — Longfellow. 

12. Away ! away ! and on we dash, 
Torrents less rapid and less rash. — Byron. 






WORDS WITH VARIOUS USES. 273 



IX. WORDS WITH VARIOUS USES. 

391. Note the classification of the different uses 
of the following words, as the variety of their uses 
makes them often perplexing. 

As. 

I. Adverb of degree or manner. 

Solitude is as needful to the imagination as society is 
wholesome for the character. — Lowell. 

II. As part of a phrase conjunction. 

1. Coordinate. 

There is creative reading as well as relative thinking. 

— Bovee. 

2. Subordinate. 

1. The little birds sang as if it were 

The one day of summer in all the year. — Lowell. 

2. Humanity . . . 
Had painted winter like a traveler old, 

As though his weakness were disturbed by pain. 

— Wordsworth. 

III. As part of a plirase preposition. 

As to the way of dishing up the meat, hungry men leave 
that to the cook. — Spunjeon. 

IV. As a subordinate conjunction expressing — 
1. Manner. 

I always pray that I may die as she did. — Longfellow. 



As. 



What. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Time. 

As I was walking the other day through the Crystal Pal- 
ace, I came upon a toy which had taken the leisure oi' live 
years to make. — Ruskin. 

3. Cause. 

Of the two (stones) I would prefer the larger one, as it is 
to be in front of a parapet quite in the old style. — Scott. 

4. Concession. 

Far as they (our fellow-citizens) have gone, they are yet 
within the protection of the Union. — Webster. 

5. Result. (Rare.) 

The relations are so uncertain as they require a great 
deal of examination. — Bacon. 

6. Introducing an appositive (modal appositive). 

Pleasure is far sweeter as a recreation than as a business. 

— Hitchcock. 
1. Introducing a parenthetical expression. 
Opinion is the genesis, as it were, of all temporal happi- 
ness. — Feltham. 

V. Relative pronoun. 

We may learn by practice such things on earth as shall 
be of use to us in heaven. — Chapin. 

392. What. 

I. Interrogative pronoun. 

1. In direct questions. 

1. "What is the voice of song when the world lacks the 
ear of taste ? — Hawthorne. 

2. What honest man would not rather be the sufferer 
than the defrauder ? — Richardson. 



WORDS WITH VARIOUS USES. 275 

2. In indirect questions. 

1. Ask what is folly of the crowd. — Bailey. 

2. We know what master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 

— Longfellow. 

II. Relative pronoun. 

1. Simple. 

1. We read in the form of prose what once had been a 
poem. — Disraeli. 

2. Now a merchant may wear what boots he -pleases. 

— Thackeray. 

2. Indefinite. 

1. Let come what come may, 

I shall have had my day. — Tennyson. 

2. What man would be wise let him drink of the sun 
That bears on its bosom the record of time. — O'Reilly. 

III. As an indefinite pronoun. 

1. I tell you what. " intellectual labor," as the parsons 
call it, is too much. — Lowell. 

IV. With force of a conjunction. 

1. Coordinate. 

Thus what with Avar, what with the sweat, what with the 
gallows, and what with poverty, I am custom shrunk. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. Subordinate. 

There is no man so friendless but what he can rind a 
friend sincere enough to tell him disagreeable things. 

— Lytton. 
V. 117/// the force of an adverb of degree. 

1. "What veal good does an addition bo a fortune already 
sufficient prove '.' — Goldsmith. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

VI. In exclamatory expressions. 

What exquisite accords ! what noble harmonies ! what 
touching pathos ! — Longfellow. 

VII. As an interjection. 

" What ! " said I, " so fine a dog without a master." 

— LongfeUoto. 

But. 393. But. 

I. As a conjunction. 

1. Coordinate. 

1. Adversative. 

Experience is the best schoolmaster, but the school fees 
are heavy. — Coleridge. 

2. Copulative. 

The thing is not only to avoid error, but to attain im- 
mense masses of truth. — Carlyle. 

2. Subordinate. 

1. Result. 

There is no time so miserable but a man may be true. 

— Shakespeare. 

2. Demonstrative (introductory of noun clause). 

I do not doubt but England is at present as polite a 
nation as any in the world. — Steele. 

II. As an adverh. 

A library is but the soul's burial ground. — Beecher. 

III. As a preposition. 

Pleasure is nothing else but the intermission of pain. 

— Selden. 



WORDS WITH VARIOUS USES. 277 

IV. As a relative pronoun. 

There is not an " ism " but had its shrine, nor a cause 
but had its prophet. — Hale. 

394. Tliat. That 

I. As a demonstrative pronoun. 

1. We work, and that is godlike. — Holland. 

2. That genius is feeble which cannot hold its own before 
the masterpieces of the world. — Higginson. 

II. As a relative pronoun. 

There never was a bad man that had ability for good 
service. — Beecher. 

III. As a subordinate conjunction. 

1. Demonstrative (introductory of noun 

clause). 

All admit that Cowper was a poet and a pioneer of a 
noble school. — Stedman. 

2. Purpose. 

Treat it kindly that it may 

Wish at least with us to stay. — Cowley. 

3. Remit. 

Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakrs 
him. — Franklin. 

4. Cause. 

Now I am angry with you 

Not that ye paint in oils, but that, grown fat 

And indolent, you do not paint at all. — Longfellow. 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Since. 395. Since. 

I. Subordinate conjunction. 

1. Z&ree. 

I have written nothing since I left home except a few 
letters and a journal now and then. — Lowell. 

2. Cause. 

Think not thy time short in this world 
Since the world itself is not long. — Browne. 

II. Preposition. 

Since yesterday I have been in Alcala. — Longfellow, 

III. Adverb. 

I hear Butler is made since Count of the Empire. 

— Hon; Us. 

The. 396. TJie. 

I. Definite article. 

The way to mend the bad world is to create the right 
world. — Emerson. 

II. Adverb. 

1. Demonstrative. 

The more we do, the more we can do. — Hazlitt. 

2. Relative. 

The more busy we are, the more leisure we have. — 1<1 

A. 397. A. 

I. Indefinite article. 

There is a chord in every human heart that has a sigh in 
it if touched aright. — " Ouida." 



WORDS WITH VARIOUS USES. 279 

II. As a preposition. 

1. What time a day is it ? — Shakespeare. 

2. I have often wished that I had clear 

For life, six hundred pounds a year. — Swift. 

III. Used with infinitives. 

1. He burst out a-laughing. — Macaulay. 

2. My heart's in the highlands a-chasiiig the deer. 

— Burns. 

398. According to the foregoing plan of illus- 
trating the different parts of speech for which the 
same word may be used, select or construct sen- 
tences illustrating the different uses of the follow- 
ing words : before, still, else, like, both, there, than. 



Part III. 
SENTENCE STRUCTURE. 

I. ANALYSIS. 

399. The composition and analysis of sentences 
have been considered from time to time in pre- 
ceding investigations of the elements of sentence 
structure. The general grouping, however, of the 
elements of a sentence is needed for a clear appre- 
hension and a fuller grasp of the subject. (Re- 
view p. 43 et seq.) 

A*. SENTENCE FORMS. 

400. Sentences by form are declarative, inter- 
rogative, or imperative. 

401. Where each member of a compound sen- 
tence is the same in form, the compound sentence 
is called a compound sentence of that form ; as, — 

1. Nature is good, but intellect is better. — Emerson. 

2. Awake, arise, or be forever fallen. — Milton. 

402. Note that preceding sentence (1) is a com- 
pound declarative sentence, and that sentence (2) 
is a compound imperative sentence. 

280 



ANALYSIS. 281 

Note the forms of the following compound sen- 
tences : — 

1. We can refute assertions, but who can refute silence ? 

— Dickens. 

2. Take the poetry of life away, and ■what remains be- 
hind ? — Wordsworth. 

3. Wisely improve the present ; it is thine. — Longfellow. 

403. Note that the foregoing sentences have Mixed 
different forms of simple sentences in the com- Sentences, 
pound sentences. Such sentences are called mixed 
sentences. 

404. The elements entering into the structure of g en t en ce 
a sentence are, — Elements. 

1. Subject, predicate, object. 

2. Modifying elements of subject, predicate, object, 
or of other modifying elements of the sentence. 

3. Connecting elements. 

4. Independent elements. 

405. I. Forms op Subject. 

1 . Noun. 

Man is the artificer of his own happiness. — Thoreau. 

2. Pronoun. 

He hurts me most who lavishly commends. — Churchill. 

3. Adjective. 

The beautiful is never plentiful — Emerson. 

4. Simple infinitive. 

1. To die is landing on some silent shore. — Garth. 

2. To swear is neither brave, polite, nor wise. — Pope. 

3. It needs brains to be a real fool. — MacdoncUd. 



282 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



5. G-erund. 



Reading Chaucer is like brushing through the dewy grass 
at sunrise. — Lowell. 

6. Noun clause. 

1. That Scott was never himself . . . may be admitted 
without prejudice to his sensibility. — Ruskin. 

2. It does not need that a poem should be long. 

— Emerson. 

7. Quotation. 

" One soweth, and another reapeth " is a verity that ap- 
plies to evil as well as good. — Eliot. 

Forms of 406- II. Forms of Predicate. 

Predicate. j ^ 

1. Ignorance never settles a question. — BeaconsfieUL 

2. Life is arched with changing skies. — Winter. 

II. Verb ivith — 

1. Noun. 

The true art of memory is the art of attention. — Johnson. 

2. Pronoun. 

Who and what are you ? — Longfellow. 

3. Adjective. 

Children are the keys of Paradise ; they alone are good 
and wise. — Stoddard. 

4. Adverb. 

It is there, it is there, my child. — Ilemans. 

5. Prepositional phrase. 

My days are in the yellow leaf. — Byron. 



Object. 



ANALYSIS. 283 

6. Infinitive. 

1. Simple. 
The manly part is to do with might and main what yon 

can do. — Emerson. 

2. Gerund. 

Knowledge is the knowing that we cannot know. 

— Emerson. 

7. Clause. 

The essence of an artist is that he should be articulate. 

— Swinburne. 
407. III. Forms of Object. Porms of 

1. Noun. 

The pen has shaken nations. — Tupper. 

2. Pronoun. 

Only that is poetry which cleanses and mends me. 

— Emerson. 

3. Adjective. 

The beautiful attracts the beautiful. — Hunt. 

4. Infinitive with or without a subject. 

1. Simple. 

1. I take all knowledge to be my province. — Bacon. 

2. Creation is great and cannot be understood. — Arnold. 

3. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb. 

2. Gerund. 

1. I hear the wind among the trees 
Playing celestial symphonies. — Longfellow. 

2. I call him free who fears doing wrong. — Robertson. 

5. X<>ini clause. 

The world desires to know what you have done, nut how 
you did it. — Lewes, 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Quotation. 

Keats spoke for all time when he said, "A thing of beauty 
is a joy forever." — Thackeray. 

Forms of Q0& IV- Forms of Subject Modifiers. 
Subject i Noun (or equivalent) in apposition. 

1. That endless book, the newspaper, is our national 
glory. — Beecher. 

2. The almighty dollar, that great object of universal de- 
votion throughout our land, seems to have no genuine devo- 
tees in these peculiar villages. — Irving. 

2. Noun or pronoun in possessive case. 

1. A nation's character is the sum of its splendid deeds. 

—day. 

2. One's piety is best* displayed in his pursuits. — Alcott. 

3. Adjective. 

A happy life is not made up of negations. — Landor. 

4. Adjective plirase. 

A man proud of belonging to a genuine national stock 
. . . was virtually told that America had no right to be a 
nation at all. — Stephen. 

5. Adjective clause. 

The picture that approaches sculpture nearest is the best 
picture. — Longfellow. 

6. Prepositional phrase. 

The manhood of poetry is the drama. — Hare. 

7. Participle. 

The man living to amuse himself . . . should be counted 
false to his trust. — Charming. 

8. Infinitive. 

The way to procure insults is to submit to them. — Ilazlitt. 



ANALYSTS. 285 

Note. — The forms of object modifiers are the same 
as those of subject modifiers. 

Select or construct sentences illustrating the differ- 
ent forms of object modifiers. 

409. V. Forms of Predicate Modifiers. Porms of 

1 Arlvprh Predicate 

1. Adverb. Modifiers. 

A lie always needs a truth for a handle to it. — Beecher. 

2. Adverb phrase. 

The law teaches us here and there and now and then. 

— Burke. 

3. Adverbial objective. 

May you live all the days of your life. — Sioift. 

4. Indirect object. 

Give the devil his due. — Dryden. 

5. Adverbial noun phrase. 

They grew in beauty side by side. — Hemans. 

6. Participle. 

As winds come lightly whispering from the west, 
Kissing not roughly the deep, blue and serene. — Byron. 

7. Absolute construction. 

Success surely comes with conscience in the long run, 
other things being equal. — Beecher. 

8. Infinitive. 

Knowledge exists to be imparted. — Emerson. 

9. Prepositional phrase. 

I believe virtue shows quite as well in rags and patchec 
as she does in purple and fine linen. — Dickens. 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10. Adverbial clause. 

Shine out, fair sun, till I have bought a glass, 

That I may see my shadow as I pass. — /Shakespeare. 

B. CLAUSES. 
410. I. Noun Clauses. 

1. Form. 

1. Clauses introduced by demonstrative con- 

junctions, that, but that, hut, etc. 

2. Indirect questions. 

1. Introduced by interrogative pronouns, who, 

which, what. 

2. Introduced by interrogative adverbs, how, how 

much, why, where, whether, etc. 

2. Use. 

1. As subject. 

It is a secret worth knowing that lawyers rarely go to law. 

2. As object. -OnmA 

1. Trouble teaches how much there is in manhood. 

— Beecher. 

2. They know that virtue is its own reward. — Oay. 

3. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was 
not Lot's wife in solution. — Curtis. 

3. In predicate. 

And my desire is that you . . . may accept the inscrip- 
tion of these volumes. — Mrs. Browning. 

4. As an appositive. 

The current opinion prevails that the study of Greek and 
Latin is loss of time. Swift. 

5. With a preposition. 

The good is always the road to what is true. — JIamerton. 



ANALYSTS. 287 

411. II. Adjective Clauses. 

1. Form. 

1. Relative pronoun clauses introduced by iv ho, 

which, that, what, but, as, etc. 

2. Relative adverb clauses introduced by when, 

where, ivhence, ivhy, etc. 

2. Used to modify the meaning of — ■ 

1. Subject. 

1. The only vice that cannot be forgiven is hypocrisy. 

— Hazlitt. 

2. There is no time in life when books do not influence a 
man. — JBesant. 

2. Object. 

1. The heart has eyes that the brain knows nothing of. 

— ParTchurst. 

2. The child trusts because it finds no reason in itself 
why it should not. — Holland. 

3. Noun in predicate. 

Life is a plant that grows out of death. — Beecher. 

4. Modifying elements of sentence. 

1. Society is like a lawn where every roughness is 
smoothed, every bramble eradicated, and where the eye is 
delighted by the smiling verdure of a velvet surface. — Jrriinj. 

2. Learning hath gained most by those books by which 
the printers have lost. — Fuller. 

3. Without "words" and the truth of things that is in 
them, what are we ? — lluni. 

4. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, 

O'er the grave where our hero we buried. — Wulfe. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

412. III. Adverbial Clauses. 

1. Form,. 

Introduced by relative adverbs or subordinate conjunc- 
tions. 

2. Use. 

Used to modify, — 

1. Verbs or verbals. 

2. Adverbs. 

3. Adjectives. 

3. Kinds. 

1. Time. 

We sell our birthright whenever we sell our liberty for any 
place of gold or honor. — Whipple, 

2. Place. 

The blood will follow where the knife is driven, 

The flesh will quiver where the pincers tear. — Young. 

3. Manner. 

He mouths a sentence as curs mouth a bone. — Churchill. 

4. Degree. 

The greater a man is, the less he is disposed to show his 
greatness. — (Manning. 

5. Comparison. 

A man merits no more respect than he exacts. — Hazlitt. 

6. Cause. 

We are happy now because God wills it. — Lowell. 

7. Purpose. 

Let us not run out of the path of duty lest we run into the 
way of danger. — Hill. 



ANALYSIS. 289 



8. Result. 



He was SO generally civil that nobody thanked him for it. 

— Johnson 
9. Condition. 

No education deserves the name unless it develops thought. 

. A _ . — Whipple. 

10. Concession. 

Although it be a history- 
Homely and rude, I will relate it. — Wordsworth. 

413. Uses of Infinitives. 

I. To help form verb phrases. ■ 

1. Nothing can be truer than fairy wisdom. — Jerrold. 

2. All skill ought to be exerted for universal good. 

— Johnson. 

3. Ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by state 
prizes. — Thackeray. 

4. If I were to see a man with such a face, I should love 
him dearly. — Hawthorne. 

II. As subject of verb. 

1. To shoot at crows is powder flung away. — Gay. 

2. It is a good thing to lengthen to the last a sunny 
mood. — Loir ell. 

3. It is not easy for a man to speak of his own works. 

— Dickens. 

4. But reading a Kempis is like saying one's prayers in 
a crypt. — Eggleston. 

III. As direct object of transitive verb or an 

eouiralrnt. 
1. Without subject objective. 

1. Men wish to be practically instructed. — ■ Cariyle. 

2. Only an inventor knows how to borrow. — Knu won. 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. With subject objective. 

1. Never suffer youth to be an excuse for Inadequacy. 

— Haydon. 

3. As a predicate complement. (With copu- 

lative verbs.) 
To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. — ( 'ampbell. 

4. A* an appositive. 

Success has but one fashion, — to lose nothing once gained. 

5. As an adjective modijier. — Stedman. 

The scenes to come were far better than the past. 

6. As an adverbial modifier. -Hawthorne. 

1. Virtue alone is sufficient to make a man great, glorious, 
and happy. — Franklin. 

2. Speech is to persuade, to convert, to comfort. — Emerson. 

7. With preposition to form prepositional phrase. 

The secret of being loved is in being lovely, and the secret 
of being lovely is in being unselfish. — Holland. 

8. Li absolute constructions. (Parenthetical.) 
You are a curious little fellow, to be sure, and wish a 

great many things that you will never get. — /Stevenson. 

9. In exclamatory expressions. 

1. What ! travel in Spain and not be robbed ! 

— Longfellow. 

2. Ah ! to build ! to build ! — Id. 

414. Uses of Participles. 

I. To help form verb phrases. 

1. Labor was appointed at the creation. — Mann. 

2. But the leaves are beginning to fade in an hour. 

— Watts. 



ANALYSTS. 291 

3. Each little Indian sleepyhead 

Is being kissed and put to bed. — Stevenson. 

II. Used ivith verb in adverbial relations. 
Hope springs exulting on triumphant wing. — Burns. 

III. Used as modifier of — 

1. Subject. 

Each is strong relying on his own, and each is betrayed 
when he seeks in himself the courage of others. — Emerson. 

2. Object. 

Youth beholds happiness gleaming in the prospect. 

— Coleridge. 

3. Predicate complement. 

Humor is gravity concealed behind the jest. — Weiss. 

IV. Other elements of sentence. 

1. But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, 
With his martial cloak around him. — Wolfe. 

2. Everywhere a second spring puts forth between sum- 
mer gone and winter nearing. — Allen. 

415. Participles and infinitives are frequently 
used instead of clause forms, and thus abridge or 
shorten constructions. 

416. These verbal forms when so used may take 
the regular connective of the clause thai they are 
used to abridge ; as, — 

1. No one can teach admirably if not loving liis task. 

— Alcott. 

2. I had my theory of where to seek for her remains. 

. — Stevi iixcii. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3 We see, though ordered for the best, 

Permitted laurels grace the lawless brow. — Dryden. ■ 

4. Music when combined with a pleasurable idea is 
poetry. — Poe. 

5. Books as containing the finest records of human wit 
must always enter into our notions of culture. — Id. 

417. Connecting Elements. 
Connecting elements may consist of — 

1. Conjunctions, 

2. Relative pronouns, 

3. Relative adverbs, 

4. Prepositions. 

The discussion of connectives has been considered 
so definitely in the preceding pages that a further dis- 
cussion seems needless. 

418. Independent Elements. 
I. Address. 

1. Homer, thy song men liken to the sea, 
With all the notes of music in its tone. — Lang. 

2. Wonderful and awful are thy silent halls, 
Oh, kingdom of the past! — Lowell 

3. Oh, Holy Night, from thee I learn to bear 
What man has borne before. — LongfeU&w. 

II. Exclamatory expressions. 



1. Bless thee! Bottom! bless thee! thou art translated. 

— Shakesp< are. 

2. The sea ! the sea ! the open sea ! 

The blue, the fresh, the ever free! — " Barry Cornwall" 






ANALYSIS. 293 

III. Parenthetical expressions. 

A few murmurs, mother ; we grumble a little now and 
then, to be sure. — Goldsmith. 

IV. Absolute constructions. 

I found myself in a lofty, antique hall, the roof supported 
by old English joists of old English oak. — Irving. 

V. Absolute words. 

1. Why, a hero is as much as one should say — a hero ! 

— Longfellow. 

2. Now, who will buy my apples ? — Carleton. 

3. Well, now, look at our villa. — Browning. 

In the following sentences name and explain the 
clauses, their form, use, etc., and also the uses of all 
infinitives and participles : — 

1. If ever household affections and love are graceful 
things, they are graceful in the poor. — Dickens. 

2. Liberty is worth whatever the best civilization is 
worth. — Giles. 

3. We are as much informed of a writer's genius by what 
he selects as by what he originates. — Emerson. 

4. Wherever there is music there is a throng of listeners. 

— Bryant. 

5. There is an unhappiness so great that the very fear of 
it is an alloy to happiness. — Trollope. 

6. Men possessed with an idea cannot be reasoned with. 

— Froude. 

7. A man's tyranny is measured only by his power to 
abuse. — Piatt. 

8. What ! to attribute the sacred sanctities of God and 
nature to the massacres of the Indian scalping knife ! 

— Chatham. 



294 ENGLISH GUAM MA It. 

9. It is neither wise nor honest to detract from beauty 
as a quality. — Wallace. 

10. The body of all true religion consists, to be suit-, in 
obedience to the will of the Sovereign of the world. — Burke. 

11. It has been finely said that nothing is intolerable 
which is necessary. — Emerson. 

12. Such are the men, such are the races, which have 
done much to settle and build up the United States. 

— Lodge. 

13. If cities were built by the sound of music, then some 
edifices would seem to be constructed by grave, solemn 
tones. — Hawthorne. 

14. A life that is worth writing at all is worth writing 
minutely. — Longfellow. 

15. Why does one man's yawning make another man 
yawn ? — Burton. 

16. Duty is the path that all may tread. — Morris. 

11, He who performs his duty in a state of great power 
must needs incur the utter enmity of many and the high 
displeasure of more. — Atterbury. 

18. It was a miracle to see an old man silent, since 
talking is the disease of age. — Jonson. 

19. He who meanly admires a mean thing is a snob. — 
perhaps that is a safe definition of the character. 

— Thackeray. 

20. I know not where His islands lift 
Their fronded palms in air. — Whittier. 

21. Fashion is a potency in art making it hard to judge 
between the temporary and the lasting. — Stedman. 

22. All his faults are such that one loves him still the 
better for them. — Goldsmith. 

23. I will fore think what I will promise, that I may 
promise but what I do. — Warwick. 

24. Your work, I say again, is noble work in so far as 
its ends and aims are noble. — Longfellow. 



ANALYSIS. 295 

25. The lecture as it stands was, as I have just said, 
thrown together out of the materials I had by me. — Busk in. 

2G. Better far to die in the old harness than to try to put 
on another. — Holland. 

27 The best part of knowledge is that which tells us 
where knowledge leaves off and ignorance begins. — Holmes. 

28. The worst way of being intimate is by scribbling. 

— Johnson. 

29. .You know I say just what I think. — Longfellow. 

30. Dangers by being despised grow great. — Burke. 

31. You were bidden to a bridal dance and found your- 
selves walking in a funeral procession. — Hawthorne. 

32. No act, however long, is safe that does not match a 
thought that is still longer. — Parkhurst. 

33. Literature, like a gypsy, to be picturesque, should be 
a little ragged. — Jerrold. 

34. Man is a material creature, slow to think, and dull to 
perceive connections. — Stevenson. 

35. You have only to watch over ill-natured people to 
resolve to be unlike them. — Buxton. 

36. If we were to live here always with no other care 
than how to feed, clothe, and house ourselves, life woidd 
be a sorry business. — Smith. 

37. The reason why so few marriages are happy is be- 
cause young ladies spend their time in making nets, not 
making cages. — Swift. 

38. Life is a rich strain of music suggesting a realm too 
fair to be. — Curtis. 

39. Learning, to be of much use, must have a tendency 
to spend itself among the common people. — Burke. 



Paet IV. 
SYNTAX. 



Syntax. 419 - Syntax is that part of grammar which 
treats of the relations that words in the sentence 
have to one another. 

Syntax is from the Latin syntaxis — systematic ar- 
rangement. 

Construe- 42 °- The way in which one part of speech is 
tion. related to the rest of the sentence is its con- 
struction. 

Rules of 421 - Statements of the different constructions in 
Syntax, the sentences are rules of syntax. 

Although the rules of syntax have been more or less 
explained, stated, and illustrated in the foregoing work, 
yet the more general rules of syntax are restated in 
form of empiric statements, 'that the general principles 
may be viewed together. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

422. I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of 
a verb is in the nominative ease. 

Variety is the mother of enjoyment. — Beaconsfield. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 297 

II. A noun used as the name of a person or thing 
addressed is in the nominative case. 

Divinest Autumn ! who may paint thee best, 
Forever changeful o'er the changeful globe ! 

— Stoddard. 

III. A noun or pronoun used with a participle in an 
absolute construction is in the nominative case. 

The next day being Sunday, and the new church not yet 
being opened, he kept his room. — Allen. 

Note. — In absolute constructions the participle is 
sometimes omitted when it can readily be inferred ; as, — 
Thou away, the very birds are mute. — Shakespeare. 

IV. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective 
case. 

England expects every man to do his duty. — Nelson. 

V. A noun or pronoun used as the direct object of 
an action is in the objective case. 

Note 1. — Verbs or verbals of asking, teaching, and 
the like, admit of two objects, one of the person and the 
other of the thing. 

Ask me no questions. — Goldsmith. 

The object of the thing may be an infinitive phrase 
or clause. 

I ask not proud Philosophy 

To teach me what thou art. — Campbell. 

When the object of the person becomes the subject 
of the passive form, the object of the thing is still 

retained as object of the passive form of the verb ; as, — 
1 was asked no questions. 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Questions is the retained object of the passive verb, 
asked. 

Note 2. — Verbs or verbals of calling, choosing, 
making, regarding, showing, and the like, admit of a 
secondary object of the same person or thing ; as, — 

Rousseau calls the human voice the warder of the mind. 

— Willis. 

1. The secondary object may be an adjective agree- 
ing with noun implied. 

Good humor makes all things tolerable. — Beecker. 

2. In the passive form of the verb the secondary 
object becomes a predicate noun ; as, — 

Washington is called the father of his country. 

VI. A noun or pronoun used as the indirect object 
of an action is in the objective case. 

The preposition to or for is commonly used with the 
indirect object. 

With verbs of giving, sending, telling, the indirect 
object is generally used without the proposition to or 
for. 

In the best books great men talk to us and give us their 
most precious thoughts. — Channing. 

VII. A noun used to express the adverbial relations 
of time, price, space, and the like, is in the objective 
case. 

1. Lost, yesterday, somewhere between sunrise and sun- 
set, two golden hours, each set with sixty diamond minutes. 

— Mann. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 299 

2. Ye mariners of England ! 

That guard our native seas ; 
Whose flag has braved a thousand years, 
The battle and the breeze. — Campbell. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun used with a preposition is 
in the objective case. 

June falls asleep upon her bier of flowers. — Larcom. 

IX. A noun or pronoun used to denote ownership, 
authorship, or similar relation, is in the possessive case. 

1. Vain was the chief's, the sage's pride. 
They had no poet and they died. — Pope. 

2. They lard their lean books with the fat of others' 
works. — Barton. 

X. A predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case with 
the subject whose meaning it describes or defines. 

Experience is the best schoolmaster. — Coleridge. 

XI. An appositive agrees in case with the noun or 
pronoun whose meaning it describes or defines. 

Time, the prime minister of death, 

There's naught can bribe his honest will. — Marvell. 

XII. A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

All truths are not to be told. — Herbert. 

Note 1. — A verb with two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by an alternative conjunction agrees 
with them in the singular number. 

Nor age, nor business, nor distress can erase this dear 

image from my Imagination. — Steele. 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 2. — A verb with two or more singular sub- 
jects connected with a copulative conjunction generally 
agrees with them in the plural number. 

Truth and fiction are so aptly mixed, 

That all seenis uniform and of a piece. — Roscommon. 

Note 3. — A verb having two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by a copulative conjunction may agree 
with them in the singular number when the subjects 
refer to the same, or to different views of the same, 
person or thing, or when two or more things are to be 
regarded as singular in idea. 

1. A laggard in love and a dastard in war 

Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. — Scott. 

2. The peace and good order of society was not promoted 
by the feudal system. — Ilallam. 

3. Friendship and esteem, founded on the merit of the 
object, is the most certain basis to build a lasting happiness 
upon. — Arnold. 

Note 4. — When two or more singular subjects of 
different persons are connected by an alternative con- 
junction, the verb usually agrees in person with the 
nearest subject except when the nearest subject is the 
personal pronoun of the first person, singular, when 
the rule is usually reversed. 

He or you are at fault. 
You or he is at fault. 
He or I is at fault. 
You or I are at fault. 

XIII. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
gender, number, and person. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 301 

1. He who sows courtesy reaps friendship ; 

And he who plants kindness gathers love. — Basil 

2. You who forget your own friends, meanly to follow 
after those of a higher degree, are a snob. — Thackeray. 

3. Proper respect for some persons is best preserved by 
avoiding their neighborhood. — Curtis. 

4. Woman was formed to be admired; man to be ad- 
mirable. His are the glories of the sun at noonday ; hers 
the softened splendors of the midnight moon. — Sidney. 

XIV. An adjective is used to modify the meaning of 
a noun or pronoun. 

1. American patriotism must be a household virtue. 

— Beecher. 

2. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. 

— Shakespeare. 

XV. An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a 
verb or verbal, an adjective or adverb. 

1. Our domestic affections are the most salutary basis of 
all good government. — Beacons field. 

2. A peace too eagerly sought is not always the sooner 
obtained. — Burke. 

XVI. A preposition is used with a noun, pronoun, 
or an equivalent construction to form a phrase express- 
ing adverbial, adjective, or substantive relations. 

The duty of labor is written on a man's body, in the stout 
muscle of the arm and the delicate machinery of the hand. 

— Parker. 

XVII. A conjunction is used to join together sen- 
tences or parts of the same sentence. 

1. Increased means and increased leisure are the two 
civilizers of man. — Beaconsfield. 

2. Her step is music, and her voice is song. — Bailey. 



Part V. 
SENTENCES FOE ANALYSIS. 



Analyze the following passages, giving the struc- 
ture and syntax of each word: — 

1. It is the slovenliness of men and women which, for the 

most part, makes their lives so unsatisfactory. They do not 
sit at the loom with keen eye and deft finger; but they 
work listlessly and without a sedulous care to piece together, 
as they best may, the broken threads. We are apt to give 
up work too soon, to suppose that a single breakage lias 
ruined the cloth. The men who get on in the world are not 
daunted by one nor a thousand breakages. 

— The Saturday Rem to. 

2. Happiness in this world, when it comes, comes inciden- 
tally. Make it an object of pursuit, and it leads us a wild- 
goose chase, and is never attained. Follow some other 
object, and very possibly we may find that we have caught 
happiness without dreaming of it ; but likely enough it is 
gone the moment we say to ourselves, " Here it is !*' like t In- 
chest of gold treasure-seekers find. — Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

3. The beauty of the hoar frost is nothing by itself, noth- 
ing on naked rock or mountain, nothing in the streets of the 
city, and out at sea it only is visible on the ship's cordage, 
if by accident it may whiten it for awhile; but on sylvan 
landscapes it settles like a fairy decoration. No human 
work is delicate enough to be compared with such delicacy 

302 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 303 

as this, no human artificer, in silver or in ivory, ever wrought 
such visible magic as these millions of tiny spears that 
thrust out points of unimaginable fineness from the lightest 
spray's utmost extremity. The perfect beauty of this adorn- 
ment is visible only on the thinnest and lightest; on the 
dark, thin twigs of the birch that bend under the weight of a 
robin, or on the slender, long sprays of the bird-cherry tree 
that the little birds love so well. — Philip Gilbert Homerton. 

4. L'Exvoi. 

When earth's last picture is painted, and the tubes are 

twisted and dried, 
When the oldest colors have faded, and the youngest critic 

has died, 
We shall rest, and, faith, we shall need it — lie down for an 

£eon or two, 
Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall set us to work 

anew ! 

And those that were good shall be happy ; they shall sit in 

a golden chair ; 
They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of 

comet's hair ; 
They shall find real saints to draw from — Magdalen, Peter, 

and Paul ; 
They shall work for an age at a sitting, and never be tired 

at all ! 

And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master 

shall blame; 
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work 

for fame ; 
But each for the joy of working, and each, in his separate 

star, 

Shall draw the Thing as he sees It for the God of Tilings 
as They Are. — Rudyafd Kipling. 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



5. Thou Ship of State. 



Thou too, sail on, ship of State ! 
Sail on, Union, strong and great ! 

Humanity, with all its fears, 

With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, 

Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 
In what a forge, and what a heat, 

Were shaped the anchors of thy hope. 
Fear not each sudden sound and shock ; 
'Tis of the wave, and not the rock ; 
'Tis but the flapping of the sail, 
And not a rent made by the gale. 
In spite of rock and tempest's roar, 
In spite of false lights on the shore, 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea ! 
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee ; 

Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, 

Our faith triumphant o'er our fears, 
Are all with thee — are all with thee! 

— Henry W. Longfellow. 

The Love of Country. 

Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

"This is my own, my native land! " 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell ! 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 305 

High though his titles, proud his name, 

Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, — 

Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 

The wretch, concentered all in self, 

Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 

And, doubly dying, shall go down 

To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 

Unwept, mihonored, and unsung. — Sir Walter Scott. 

Old Ironsides. 
Ay, tear her tattered ensign down ! 

Long has it waved on high, 
And many an eye has danced to see 

That banner in the sky ; 
Beneath it rung the battle shout, 

And burst the cannon's roar ; — 
The meteor of the ocean air 

Shall sweep the clouds no more ! 
Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, 

Where knelt the vanquished foe, 
"When winds were hurrying o'er the flood, 

And waves were white below, 
No more shall feel the victor's tread, 

Or know the conquered knee ; — 
The harpies of the shore shall pluck 

The eagle of the sea ! 
better that her shattered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ; 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep. 

And there should be her grave ; 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, 

The lightning and the gale ! 

— Oliver WendeU II<>lin<s. 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Go down where the wavelets are kissing the shore, 
And ask of them why do they sigh ? 
The poets have asked them a thousand times o'er. 
But they're kissing the shore as they kissed it before, 
And they're sighing to-day, and they'll sigh evermore. 
Ask them what ails them ; they will not reply, 
But they'll sigh on forever and never tell why ! 
" Why does your poetry sound like a sigh ? " 
The waves will not answer you, neither shall I. 

— Abram J. Ryt i n . 

9. Two elements underlie all Teutonic character — tin- 
deep power of love and the grand power of will. The 
one is seen in the intense national spirit of the race, in 
the sacredness of domestic ties, in the reverence for a 
Supreme Being. The other has been the fruitful germ of 
free acting and free thinking, of civil right and religious 
liberty; the force which, through willing hearts and plod- 
ding brains, has scaled the loftiest heights of speculation or 
fathomed the lowest depths of research. . . . 

Have you read this poem of Arndt's, "What is the 
German Fatherland?" Arrogant French diplomacy little 
knew the storm it was gathering to burst upon its own head. 
It planned the disruption of a people, but inspired a song 
which bound it in cords the wildest martial fury could not 
snap. How all the later history breathes and pulsates with 
the unity of race ! How the word, "Fatherland," is twined 
about the very tendrils of the German heart ! 

— Arthur 8. Hoyt. 

10. The ear, the voice, the fancy teeming with combina- 
tions, — the imagination fervent with picture and emotion, 
that came from Caucasus, and which we have preserved 
unpolluted, — have endowed us with almost the exclusive 
privilege of music; that science of harmonious sounds which 
the ancients recognized as most divine, and deified in the 
person of their most beautiful creation. I speak not of the 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 307 

past ; though were I to enter into the history of the lords of 
melody, you would find in it the annals of Hebrew genius. 
But at this moment, even, musical Europe is ours. There is 
not a company of singers, not an orchestra in a single capi- 
tal, that is not crowded with our children, under the feigned 
names which they adopt to conciliate the dark aversion 
which your posterity will some day disclaim with shame 
and disgust. Almost every great composer, skilled musician, 
almost every voice that ravishes you with its transporting 
strains, spring from our tribes. The catalogue is too vast 
to enumerate; too illustrious to dwell for a moment on 
secondary names, however eminent. Enough for us that the 
three great creative minds to whose exquisite inventions all 
nations at this moment yield — Rossini, Meyerbeer, Mendels- 
sohn, — are of Hebrew race ; and little do your men of fash- 
ion, your " muscadins " of Paris and your dandies of London, 
as they thrill into raptures at the notes of a Pasta or Grisi, — 
little do they suspect that they are offering homage to the 
sweet singers of Israel. — Earl of Beaconsjield. 

11. What a place to be in is an old library ! It seems as 
though the souls of all the writers, that have bequeathed 
their labors to these Bodleians, were reposing here as in 
some dormitory or middle state. I do not want to handle, 
to profane the leaves, their winding sheets. I could as soon 
dislodge a shade. I seem to inhale learning, walking amid 
their foliage, and the odor of their old moth-scented cover- 
ings is fragrant as the first bloom of those sciential apples 
which grew amid the happy orchard. — Charles Lamb. 

12. The highest compliment which his countrymen 
thought they could pay to the first Scipio was to call him 
a walking stick, for such is the signification of his name. 
It was given for the filial zeal with which he used to help 
his old father about, serving his decrepit age instead of a 
stall'. — Leigh II ant. 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. "We read, in old stories, of enchanters who drew 
gardens out of snow, and of tents no bigger than a nutshell, 
which open out over a whole army. Of a like nature is the 
magic of a book, — a casket from which you may draw out 
at will bowers to sit under and affectionate beauties to sit 
by, and have trees, flowers, and an exquisite friend, all at 
one spell. — Id. 

14. There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a 
beautiful island, famous in story and in song. Its area is 
not so great as that of the State of Louisiana, while its pop- 
ulation is almost half that of the Union. It has given to the 
world more than its share of genius and of greatness. It 
has been prolific in statesmen, warriors, and poets. Its brave 
and generous sons have fought successfully all battles but 
their own. In wit and humor it has no equal ; while its 
harp, like its history, moves to tears by its sweet but melan- 
choly pathos. — S. S. Prentiss. 

15. My lords, you are impatient for the sacrifice. The 
blood which you seek is not congealed by the artificial 
terrors which surround your victim ; it circulates warmly 
and unruffled through the channels which God created for 
noble purposes, but which you are bent to destroy for pur- 
poses so grievous that they cry to heaven ! Be yet patient ! 
I have but a few words more to say. I am going to my 
silent grave ; my lamp of life is nearly extinguished ; my 
race is run ; the grave opens to receive me, and I sink into 
its bosom. 

I have but one request to ask at my departure from this 
world; — it is the charity of its silence. Let no man write 
my epitaph ; for, as no one who knows my motives dares 
now vindicate them, let not prejudice or ignorance asperse 
them. Let them and me repose in obscurity and peace, and 
my tomb remain uninscribed, until other times and other 
men can do justice to my character. AVhen my country 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 309 

shall take her place among the nations of the earth, then, 
and not till then, let my epitaph be written. 

— Robert Emmet. 

16. It was a fine sunny morning when the thrilling cry 
of "land!" was given from the masthead. I question 
whether Columbus, when he discovered the New World, 
felt a more delicious throng of sensations than rush into 
an American's bosom when he first comes in sight of 
Europe. There is a volume of associations in the very 
name. It is the land of promise, teeming with everything 
of which his childhood has heard, or on which his studious 
years have pondered. . . . 

From that time until the period of arrival, it was all 
feverish excitement. The ships of war, that prowled like 
guardian giants around the coast ; the headlands of Ireland 
stretching out into the channel; the Welsh mountains, 
towering into the clouds, — all were objects of intense 
interest. As we sailed up the Mersey, I reconnoitered the 
shores with a telescope. My eye dwelt with delight on 
neat cottages, with their trim shrubberies and green grass 
plots. I saw the moldering ruins of an abbey overrun 
with ivy, and the taper spire of a village church rising from 
the brow of a neighboring hill ; all were characteristic of 
England. — Washington Irving. 

17. I was one day talking with Charles Sumner upon 
some public question, and, as our conversation warmed, I 
said to him, "Yes, but you forget the other side." He 
brought his clinched hand down upon the table till it rang 
again, and his voice shook the room as he thundered in 
reply, " There is no other side ! " There spoke the Puritan. 
There flamed the unconquerable spirit which swept the 
Stuarts out of England, liberalized the British Constitution, 
planted the republic in America, freed the slaves, and made 
the Union a national bond of equal liberty. 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If the Puritans snuffled in prayer, they smote in fight. 
If they sang through their noses, the hymn they chanted 
was liberty. If they aimed at a divine monarchy, they 
have founded the freest, most enlightened, most powerful 
Eepublic in history. . . . 

By their fruits, not by their roots, ye shall know them. 
Under the matted damp leaves in the April woods of New- 
England, straggling and burrowing and stretching far in 
darkness and in cold, you shall find tough, hard, fibrous 
roots. But the flower they bear is the loveliest and sweet- 
est of all flowers in the year. The root is black and rough 
and unsightly. But the flower is the Mayflower. The root 
of Puritanism may have been gloomy bigotry, but the 
flower was Liberty and its fruit. — Geo rye William Curd's. 

18. Broadly considered, the eloquence of Daniel O'Cmi- 
nell has never been equaled in modern times. Do you 
think I am partial? I will vouch John Randolph, of 
Roanoke, the Virginia slaveholder, who hated an Irishman 
almost as much as he hated a Yankee, — himself an orator 
of no mean level. Hearing O'Connell, he exclaimed: " This 
is the man, these are the lips, the most eloquent that speak 
English in my clay." I think he was right. I remember 
the solemnity of Webster, the grace of Everett, the rhetoric 
of Choate. I know the eloquence that lay hid in the iron 
logic of Calhoun. I have melted beneath the magnetism of 
Seargent S. Prentiss, of Mississippi, who wielded a power 
few men ever had. But I think all of them together never 
surpassed, and no one of them ever equaled, O'Connell. 

— Wendell Phillips. 

19. Ours is and always has been a government controlled 
by lawyers. In this De Toqueville recognized its greatest 
claim to stability and expansion. The profession has con- 
tributed seventeen of the twenty-one presidents of the 
United States and rilled cabinets and councils. Its radical- 



SENTENCES EOR ANALYSTS. 311 

ism has always tended to the preservation of liberty, the 
maintenance of order, and the protection of property. 

Lawyers can be agitators without being demagogues. 
They have codified the laws, brushed away the subtleties of 
practice, abolished those fictions of law and equity which 
defeated justice; and yet liberties are always so enlarged 
as to preserve essential rights. No other profession or pur- 
suit has behind it exemplars and a history like the law. 
Its teachers have been the foes of anarchy, misrule, and 
tyranny, and its principles form the foundation of govern- 
ments and the palladium of rights. 

Call the roll, and you summon God's chosen ministers 
of civilization and reform. It was not Pericles, but Solon 
and his statutes, who made possible Grecian power and 
progress. It was not her legions, but her twelve tables, 
which made Rome the mistress of the world. It was not 
the defeat of the Moslem hordes, but the discovery of the 
Pandects, which preserved Europe. It was not the Norman 
conqueror, but the common law, which evolved constitu- 
tional freedom out of chaos, revolution, and despotism. 

— Chauncey M. Depew. 

20. A thoughtful mind, when it sees a nation's flag, sees 
not the flag, but the nation itself. AVhen the French tri- 
color rolls out to the wind, we see France. When the new- 
found Italian flag is unfurled, we see unified Italy. When 
the united crosses of St. Andrew and St. George, on a fiery 
ground, set forth the banner of old England, we see not the 
cloth merely; there rises up before the mind the idea of 
that great monarchy. 

This nation has a banner, too; and wherever this flag 
comes, and men behold it, they' see in its sacred emblazonry 
no ramping lion and no fierce eagle, no embattled castles 01 
Insignia of imperial authority; they see the symbols of 
light. It is the banner of dawn. It means liberty; and t he 
galley slave, the poor, oppressed conscript, the trodden- 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

down creature of foreign despotism, sees in the American 
flag the very promise of God. 

If one, then, asks me the meaning of our flag, I say to 
him: It means just what Concord and Lexington meant, 
what Bunker Hill meant. It means the whole glorious 
Revolutionary War. It means all that the Declaration of 
Independence meant. It means all that the Constitution 
of our people, organizing for justice, for liberty, and for 
happiness, meant. — Henry Ward Beecher. 

21. Far to the south lies the fairest and richest domain 
of this earth. There by night the cotton whitens beneath 
the stars, and by day the wheat locks the sunshine in its 
bearded sheaf. There are mountains stored with exhaust- 
less treasures, forests, vast and primeval, and rivers that, 
tumbling or loitering, run wanton to the sea. But why is 
it, though the sectional line be now but a mist that the 
breath may dispel, fewer men of the North have crossed it 
over to the South than when it was crimson with the best 
blood of the Republic, or even when the slaveholder stood 
guard every inch of its way? There can be but one answer. 
It is the very problem we are now to consider. My people, 
your brothers in the South — brothers in blood, in destiny, 
in all that is best in our past and future — are so beset with 
this problem that their very existence depends upon its 
right solution. 

I thank God as heartily as you do that human slavery is 
gone forever from the American soil. But the freedman 
remains. With him a problem without precedent or paral- 
lel. Note its appalling conditions. Two utterly dissimilar 
races on the same soil — with equal civil and political rights 
— almost equal in numbers, but terribly unequal in intelli- 
gence and responsibility — each pledged against fusion — 
one for a century in servitude to the other, and freed at last 
by a desolating war — the experiment sought by neither, 






SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 313 

but approached by both with doubt, — these are the con- 
ditions. — Henry W. Grady. 

22. I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peace- 
ful, useful, prosperous, and happy, in that England which 
I shall see no more. I see her with a child upon her bosom, 
who bears my name. I see her father, aged and bent, but 
otherwise restored and at peace. I see the good old man, 
so long their friend, enriching them with all he has, and 
passing tranquilly to his reward. 

I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the 
hearts of their descendants generations hence. I see an 
old woman weeping for me on the anniversary of this day. 
I see her and her husband, their course done, lying side by 
side in their last earthly bed, and I know that each was not 
more honored and held sacred in the other's soul than I 
was in the souls of both. 

I see that child who bore my name, a man, winning his 
way up in that path of life which once was mine ; winning 
it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the 
light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it faded away. 

It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever 
done. It is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have 
ever known. — Charles Dickens. 

23. They moved right on like soldiers in their ranks, 
stopping at nothing and straggling for nothing; they car- 
ried a broad furrow or wheal all across the country, black 
and loathsome, while it was as green and smiling on each 
side of them and in front as it had been before they came. 
Before them, in the language of the prophets, was a para- 
dise, and behind them a desert. They are daunted by noth- 
ing; they surmount walls and hedges, and enter enclosed 
gardens or inhabited houses. A rare and experimental 
vineyard has been planted in a sheltered grove. The high 
winds of Africa will not commonly allow the light trellis 



314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or the slim pole; but here the lofty poplar of Campania 
has been possible, on which the vine plant mounts so many 
yards into the air, that the poor grape gatherers bargain for 
a funeral pile and a tomb as one of the conditions of theii 
engagement. The locusts have done what the winds and 
lightning could not do, and the whole promise of the vin- 
tage, leaves and all, is gone, and the oleander stems are had 
bare. — John Henry Newman. 

24. Take one day; share it into sections; to each section 
appropriate its task ; leave no stray, unemployed quarter of 
an hour, ten minutes, five minutes ; include all ; do each 
piece of business in its turn with method, with rigid regu- 
larity. The day will close almost before you are aware it 
has begun ; and you will be indebted to no one for helping 
you to get rid of one vacant moment ; you had to seek no 
one's company, consolation, sympathy, forbearance ; you 
have lived, in short, as an independent being ought to do. 

— Charlotte Bronte. 

25. All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice 
and power, in every country and in every age, have been 
the triumphs of Athens. Wherever a few great minds have 
made a stand against violence and fraud, in the cause of 
liberty and reason, there has been her spirit in the midst of 
them; inspiring, encouraging, consoling ; by the lonely lamp 
of Erasmus; by the restless bed of Pascal; in the tribune 
of Mirabeau; in the cell of Galileo; on the scaffold of 
Sidney. But who shall estimate her influence on private 
happiness ? Who shall say how many thousands have been 
made wiser, happier, and better, by those pursuits in which 
she has taught mankind to engage; to how many the studies 
which took their rise from her have been wealth in poverty, 
— liberty in bondage, — health in sickness, — society in 
solitude? Her power is indeed manifested at the bar. in 
the senate, in the held of battle, in the schools of philos- 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 315 

opliy. But these are not her glory. Wherever literature 
consoles sorrow, or assuages pain, — wherever it brings glad- 
ness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears, and 
ache for the dark house and the long sleep, — there is 
exhibited, in its noblest form, the immortal influence of 
Athens. . . . And when those who have rivaled her great- 
ness shall have shared her fate; when civilization and 
knowledge shall have fixed their abode in distant conti- 
nents ; when the scepter shall have passed away from Eng- 
land; when, perhaps, travelers from distant regions shall 
in vain labor to decipher on some moldering pedestal the 
name of our proudest chief; shall hear savage hymns 
chanted to some misshapen idol, over the ruined dome of 
our proudest temple; and shall see a single naked fisher- 
man wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts ; 
— her influence and her glory will still survive, — fresh in 
eternal youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal 
as the intellectual principle from which they derived their 
origin, and over which they exercised their control. 

— Thomas Babington Macaulay. 



APPENDIX I. 



HISTORICAL OUTLINE SKETCH OP THE 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Languages are the pedigree of nations. — Dr. Johnson. 
A change of language invariably betokens a change in 
the social constitution of a country. — Madame de Stael. 

When first we hear of Britain it is inhabited by a Celts, 
people called Celts, speaking a language called Celtic. 

This early Celtic speech, in more or less modernized Celtic. 
forms, is still used among the descendants of the Celts 
in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, the Isle of 
Man, and in some parts of Ireland and Brittany. 

These Celts, we are told, were rude in appearance, 
savage in practices, and crude in the arts of civilization, 
but they revered their priestly rulers, were devoted to 
their native land, and had a passion for poetry, color, 
and rhythmic music. 

Fifty-five years before the Christian era, Julius Roman 
Caesar led his conquering Roman legions into Britain, Invasion, 
met the warlike but untrained Celts, and became their 
partial conqueror and their first historian. 

Neither Julius Caesar, however, nor any of his Roman 
successors, were ever able to conquer the whole of the 
island of Britain. 

After suffering repeated defeats at the hands of the Roman 
Romans, some of the Celts withdrew to mountain fast- Rule. 
817 



318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nesses and wooded heights, and carried on a marauding 

warfare throughout the centuries of Roman rule in 
Britain. Others of the Celts submitted to the Roman 
conquerors, became their servants and teamed many of 
the civilizing arts of their masters. The Romans, as 
civilizers, did much in Britain. They reared fortifica- 
tions, founded cities, constructed a system of military 
roads, established schools and courts of justice, de- 
veloped agriculture, and gave an impetus to trade and 
commerce. The stability of Roman rule in Britain was 
crippled by frequent and savage attacks by the Celts of 
the mountains. It also suffered much from the preda- 
tory inroads of Saxon marauders and other German 
pirates. And when, finally, governmental authority 
had become weakened throughout the Roman Empire, 
by growing factional strife in Rome, Roman rule in 
Britain was relinquished, and the Roman legions were 
withdrawn from the island (410 A.D.). 

Against the Celts, enervated by Roman customs and 
impoverished by Roman tribute, and now unprotected 
by Roman arms, three tribes of Germans crossed over 
into Britain and settled on the richest lands of the 
island. 

Jutes. The J u tes of Jutland were the 1 first to cross. They 

went as the invited allies of the Celts of the south 
against the Celts of the north, and remained as settlers 
on the plains of Kent (449 a.d.). 

Saxons. The Saxons, attracted by the fertile fields of Britain, 

set out in frequent bands from Holstein and Friesland, 
and settled as conquerors on the rich land of the south 
and southwestern part of the island (477 a.d.). 

Angles. The Angles, also allured by the rich lands of Britain 

and by the successes of the Jutes ami Saxons on the 



SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 319 

island, sallied forth in large numbers from Sleswiek, 
and with lire and sword and battle-ax took possession 
of lands interior from the eastern coast (527 a.d.). 

It took these German tribes about two hundred Struggle 
years to tear from the Celts in bitter warfare that for 
part of the island formerly held under Roman rule, Supremacy, 
and bring the Celts into subjection. They tried to 
crash out the Celtic spirit and suppress the Celtic 
speech. Only in part were they successful, for some 
of the Celtic speech and much of the Celtic spirit re- 
mained as a legacy to the conquerors. 

It took another two hundred years of cruel and Civil Strife 
relentless civil strife among these German tribes to among 
blot out the boundaries of their petty realms, and bring ^man 
about a union from which was formed a new kingdom 
called Angle-land or England. 

The kingdom thus established did not long enjoy Damgu 
the fruits of peace, for bands of Danish pirates (North- Inroads 
men) in considerable numbers infested the eastern and 
oust of England, plundered the villages, and in fre- Supremacy. 
quent and successful engagements threatened the very 
life of the kingdom. For about two hundred years 
these pirates of the north carried on a warfare of plun- 
der, and constantly enlarged their settlements on the 
eastern coast. Danish kings sat on the English throne 
for twenty-six years before they were finally driven 
out (1042 A.i>. ). 

While the Danes were carrying on their predatory 
warfare in England, other Wands of Northmen were 
making repeated piratical descents into Gaul, until 

finally, having been granted a portion of land in the 

northeastern part ol Gaul, they settled there as peaceful Normans. 

subjects of France (918 A.D.). These barbaric North- 



Celtic. 



320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

men soon learned the language and customs of Prance, 

adopted its religion, and caught the French spirit of 
activity, learning, refinement, and culture. These 
Northmen of Gaul came to be known as Normans. 

Under their leader, William, Duke of Normandy, 
these Normans invaded England, conquered the Eng- 
lish in a single battle, and their leader, known as 
William the Conqueror, was crowned king of England 
(1066 a.d.). Norman kings sat on the English throne 
for nearly a century (1154 a.d.), after which time 
English sovereigns again ruled in England. 

The Normans did not wage an exterminating war 
against the Saxons. The conquerors sought rather to 
win the Saxons to Norman rule and Norman service. 
Norman manners and customs were introduced. Norman 
courts and churches were established, and the Norman 
language was proclaimed the language of England. 

From the foregoing brief historical outline may be 
noted the following dominant influences and elements 
entering into the formation of the English language. 

I. Celtic. 

Although the verbal remains of Celtic speech are not 
numerous, but are found mostly in a few domestic and 
descriptive words, and in the significant names of the 
streams and rivers, hills and mountains.- gorges, cata- 
racts, vales, and inland waters that still dot the map of 
that section which was the home of the early Uritish 
Celts, yet the spirit of Celtic speech has had a strong 
and abiding influence on English thought, and lias 
given a grace and picturesqueness to English language 
and literature. 



SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



321 



II. Latin. 

The Latin language has brought the greatest verbal 
wealth to the treasury of the English language, and lias 
employed in the process of time three distinct agencies. 

1. The armies of Rome, as a result of conquest, left in 
Britain a few Latin roots and much of Latin spirit, influence, 
and manners. 

2. The Church of Rome introduced Christianity into 
Britain in the early centuries of the Christian era, and 
not only gave a direction to British thought, but planted 
several hundred Latin words and roots in the native tongue 
through the influence of a Latin liturgy and church service. 

3. The literature of Rome, which was used as a means of 
instruction and culture before an English literature had 
been produced, and the widespread study of Latin authors 
after the revival of learning, added a wealth of words and 
roots to the English. 

III. Germanic. 

The different dialects of the German tribes that set- 
tled in England are commonly grouped under the 
name Anglo-Saxon. This Anglo-Saxon language, rich 
in inflectional endings, and modified more or less by 
the Celtic and Latin influences of the native speech, 
became the trunk or stem out of which the English 
language was to grow. 

IV. Danish. 

The Danish influence on the English language con- 
sists, for the most part, in the remains of Danish speech 
still found in many names of places on the eastern 
coast of England, especially those names of towns 
eliding ill by, as DeiV-y, RugAy, DanZ-y. The same 



Latin. 



Germanic. 



Danish. 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

word, %, is seen in the compound word /'//-laws, orig- 
inally meaning town laws. The verb form are and the 
preposition of, used with the objective case as an equiv- 
alent of the Anglo-Saxon possessive ease, arc of Danish 
origin. 

Norman. V. Norman. 

The influence of the Norman French on the English 
language was in reality the indirect influence of the 
Latin, as the Norman-French was a Latinized tongue. 
The Normans, as conquerors in England, made the 
Norman speech the language of camp and court, of 
church and cloister. The words of learning and lux- 
ury, of homage and honor, of war and chivalry, of the 
chase and tournament, were Norman. Throughout the 
period of Norman rule in England the Anglo-Saxon 
remained the language of the common people. Be- 
tween the two languages, the Norman, the language of 
the aristocracy, and the Anglo-Saxon, a bitter, relent- 
less Avar was waged for supremacy. The A.nglo-Saxon 
finally gained the mastery, l^ this linguistic struggle 
between the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes and Nor- 
mans, most of the inflectional forms of the Anglo-Saxon 
tongue were lost. These modified forms of the Anglo- 
Saxon language, enriched by scions of Norman-French, 
became the so-called old English Language. That old 
English language, enriched by words and derivatives 
from all the cultured languages of history, is the Eng- 
lish language of to-day. 

The English language in its development was largely 
the creation of violence, and in the white heat of conflict 
was its firmest welding done. It is truly a composite 
language, made up of many languages blended into one. 






Celtic. 



Latin. 



SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 323 

Beside the languages already specified more than 
twenty other languages have yielded verbal tribute to 
the all-devouring English language. 

Every country of the globe seems to have brought some 
of its verbal manufactures to the intellectual market of 
England. — Max Midler. 

Among the languages that have brought the greatest 
number of roots are the following, with characteristic 
words : — 

T. Celtic; as, babe, basket, clan, bard, plaid, cart, 
fun, cradle, cabin, glen, bucket, gown. 

II. Latin; as, altar, shrine, creed, pagan, port, 
street, bailiff, font, abjure, carbon, cardinal, announce. 

III. Scandinavian ; as, bark, tackle, bulge, club, Scandi- 
freckle, frith, luncheon, lurch, squall, keel, sister, navian. 
husband. 

IV. Norman-French,; as, baron, chivalry, dower, Norman- 
array, herald, homage, fee, suit forest, venison, chase, Trench. 
sport. 

V. Greek; as, telegraph, crystal, myrrh, autocrat, £ ree k 
geology, anatomy, crystal, school, aeronaut, sympathy, 
microscope, spheroid. 

VI. French; as, bouquet, brusque, croquet, valet, Trench, 
bonnet, crochet, parole, connoisseur, crayon, bonbon, 
blonde, boudoir. 

VII. Spanish ; as, alcove, almond, cargo, cigar, cork, g nin ; s i, 
merino, molasses, mosquito, mulatto, vanilla, garble, 

jade, javelin. 



324 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Italian. 



Portuguese. 



Modern 
German. 



Dutch. 



Hebrew. 

Arabic. 

Persian. 
Hindu. 

Turkish. 
Malay. 

Chinese. 



VIII. Italian; as, brigand, ballad, alto, carnival, 
banquet, cartoon, cannon, canteen, conceit, opera, 
soprano, tenor. 

IX. Portuguese ; as, caste, cocoa, commodore, fetish, 
lasso, mandarin, marmalade, molasses, porcelain, palaver, 
tank, veranda. 

X. Modern German; as, poodle, waltz, meerschaum, 
bismuth, swindle, quartz, zinc, gneiss, feldspar, shale, 
fuchsia. 

XI. Dutcli ; as, brandy, golf, knapsack, landscape, 
measles, mumps, duck, wagon, yacht, gas, skipper. 

XII. Swiss; as, dismal, glimpse, haggle, mart, 
fetlock. 

XIII. Hebrew; as, abbey, amen, jubilee, seraph, 
Sabbath, cinnamon, cherub, hallelujah, leviathan, ho- 
sanna, cabal, sapphire. 

XIV. Arabic; as, alchemy, alcohol, chemistry, cot- 
ton, rice, tariff, algebra, coffee, camphor, sofa, shrub, 
syrup. 

XV. Persian ; as, chess, sash, lemon, emerald, shawl, 
bazaar, orange, balcony, turban, lilac, awning, musk. 

XVI. Hindu; as, buggy, calico, chintz, coolie, 
jungle, nabob, loot, muslin, shampoo, sugar. 

XVII. Turkish; as, candy, divan, horde, simmer, 
bey, bosh, khan, seraglio. 

XVIIT. Malay; as, bamboo, bantam, gingham, 
mango, sago, orang-outang, gong, ruin, rattan. 

XIX. Chinese; as, china, silk, serge, satin, tea, 
typhoon, nankeen. 



SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 325 

XX. Slavonic; as, czar, sable, slave, ukase, calash, Slavonic, 
drosky, argosy, polka. 

XXI. North American Indian ; as, hominy, moccasin, North 

moose, opossum, raccoon, skunk, wigwam, squaw, warn- American 
, , , Indian, 

pum, tomahawk. 

XXII. West Indian ; as, cannibal, canoe, hammock, "West 



maize, potato, tobacco, hurricane. 



bound to one another by certain relationships and 
grouped into families. The most important of these 
linguistic family groups is the Indo -Germanic (Indo- 
European), which includes all the prominent languages 
that have been or are used in India and Western 
Europe. 

The following classification will show the principal 
ancient and modern ramifications of this family : — 

Indo-Gekmaxic Group. 
I. Aryan. 

1. Indian, including the Early Sanskrit and the 
modern Indian dialects. 

2. Iranian, including the old Persian and Avestan 
and the modern Persian. 

II. Hellenic, including the Ionic, Boric, j&Jolic, 
North /rest Greek, Arcadian, Cyprian, Elean, and Pam- 
'phylian dialects of Ancient Greek, the Albanian and 
the various dialects of Modem Greek. 

III. Italic, including the Latin-Faliscan and Oscan- 
Umbrian dialects of the Ancient Latin. &nd the Romance 



Indian. 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Languages which sprung from the Latin, as the Italian, 
French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanese, Wdllachian, and 
Provencal. 

IV. Celtic. 

1. Gaelic, including the Irish ( Erse), the Scotch 
Gaelic, and Manx. 

2. Britannic, including the Armorican, Cornish, and 

V. Germanic 

1. North Germanic, including the Danish, Swedish, 
Icelandic, and Norwegian. 

2. .EW Germanic, including iw*/ Gothic and fPead 
Gothic. 

3. TFestf Germanic, including the old and modern 
German and the Anglo-Frisian ; i.e. the Saxon Frisian. 
Flemish, and English. 

VI. Balto-Slavic. 

1. Baltic, including Lithuanian, Lettic, and 0Jd 
Prussian. 

2. Slavic, including Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Rus- 
sian, West-Slavic, Slovenian, Polislt. 



APPENDIX II. 



WORD FORMATION. 

In the foregoing pages words have been viewed as 
elements of thought or as parts of a sentence. The 
thought or sentence has been considered the unit form. 

The forms of words have been regarded only as aids 
in determining the relations of words to one another in 
the sentence. Words in their formation are in them- 
selves regarded as unit forms. A word is not usually 
the sign of a simple idea, but more frequently is the 
sign of several ideas grouped into one idea. 

The simple primitive form of a word is called its Koot. 
root. The root is the fundamental part of a word, and 
expresses its general meaning. 

The stem of a word is the part to which the inflec- Stem, 
tional endings are added, and in form is either the same 
as the root, or is the root + some modification or change, 
as calle is the stem of the root call. 

Philologists tell us that roots when traced to their 
primitive forms are found to be monosyllabic : hence 
in its earliest stages the original language of the Indo- 
Germanic group of languages must have been a mono- 
syllabic language. 

Many forms, originally independent words, have lost 
more or less of their primitive power, and are now 
merely significant particles used to define, restrict, <>r 



328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

vary the meaning of the words and stems to which they 
are joined. 

Base. The base of a word is the word or stem to which a 

significant particle is added to form a new stem or 
word ; as, world-fy, be-numb, con-^Ww-ance, nn-inter- 
est-'mg. 

Base is from the Latin basis — a foundation. 

Adjunct. The adjunct of a word is a form or word annexed to 

the base of a word ; as, hope-/)//, steam-boat, kins-man. 

Adjunct is from the Latin adjunct us — that joined to. 

Affix. ^ n a ffi x ls a significant particle annexed to the base 

of a word ; as, love-??/, cow-tract. 

Affix is from the Latin affixus — that fastened to. 

Prefix. A prefix is an affix placed before the base of a word ; 

exchange, 6a-ped, 60-seech. 

Prefix is from the Latin prarfixus — that fastened on 
in front. 

Suffix. ^ suffix is an affix placed after the base of a word : 

as, stream-Zet, act-or, cheei-ful-ness. 

Suffix is from the Latin suffixus — that fastened on, 
under, or after. 

Primitive A primitive or prime word is a word in its simplest 
Word. form ; as, he, man, bo//. 

Primitive is from the Latin primitivus — first. 

Derivative ^ derivative word is a primitive word 4- an affix or 
Word. affixes ; as, guile-less, epi-dem-ic. 

Derivative is from the Latin derivatus — that drawn 
from. 

Compound -^ compound word is two or more words united into 
Word, one word; as, freeman, son-in-law, good-night. 



WORD FORMATION. 329 



PREFIXES. 



Some English prefixes may be used as independent 
words, hence have a separate meaning. « , , 

Such are called Separable prefixes. Prefixes. 

Prefixes that cannot be used as independent words T , . 

, . . nix 77 Inseparable 

and have a separate meaning are called Inseparable p re fi X es. 

prefixes. 

The following lists of prefixes comprise those most 
commonly used in the language. 

I. English Prefixes. 

I. Separable. 

1. After : as, afterthought, afternoon, aftermath. 

2. All; as, allspice, all-hail, alone. 

3. In (em, en); as, inclose, inlay, inmost, instead, 
instep, embody, enlist. 

4. Off (of); as, offset, often. 

5. On ; as, onset, onslaught. 

6. Out ; as, outcry, outdo, outlook, outlaw, outrage. 

7. Over; as, overawe, overflow, overcoat, oversight. 

8. Under; as, undertake, undergo, underbrush, 
undertone, undercurrent, undermost. 

9. Up; as, uproot, uplift, upturn, upstart, upside, 
upward. 

IT. Inseparable. 

1. A = <m ; as, abed, afire, abide, arise, ablaze, be- 
deck, bedaub. 

2. Be = by; as, before, because, behind, beneath. 

3. For ss away; as. forbid, forget, forsake. 



330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Fore — before; as, forefather, forefinger, forego, 

foreknow, foretell. 

5. Mis = wrong ; as, mislead, misguide, miscall, 
miscount. 

6. With = opposition; as, withstand, withdraw. 

E.i'<i in pies for Practice. 

Always, uproar, mislead, upland, forswear, offhand, 

become, engage, overshoe, undertone, upon, withhold, 
afterwards, income, besides, outward, misdeed, forsooth, 
undersell, overcome, onward, underneath, await, mis- 
take, outcast. 

II. Latin Prefixes. 

1. Ah (a, abs) = from, away from; as, abscond, 
absence, abstain. 

2. Ad (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at)= to ; as, ad- 
mit, acclaim, affect, aggravate, ally, annex, apprise, 
arrest, assent, attract. 

3. Amb (am) = about ; as, ambitious, ambiguous, 
amputate. 

4. Ante = before ; as, anteroom, antenuptial. 

5. Bis (bi ) = twice ; as, biscuit, bisect, biweekly. 

6. Circum, circa = around ; as. circumspect, circuit, 
circumvent, circulate. 

7. Com (co, col, con, GOT) = wiih; as-, compound, 
cooperate, colloquy, congeal, connect, correspond. 

8. Contra (contro, counter) = against; as, contra- 
dict, controvert, counterclaim. 

9. JDe = down, from ; as, delude, deduct, depart. 
10. Dis (di, dif ) = apart, asunder; as, dismember, 

divorce, difficult. 



WORD FORMATION. 331 

11. Ex (e, ef) = out of, from; as, exalt, evade, efface. 

12. Extra = beyond ; as, extravagant, extraordinary. 

13. In (em, en, il, im ) — in, into; as, embellish, en- 
compass, illuminate, imbibe. 

14. In (ig, il, im, ir)=wot; as, intact, illegal, im- 
mature, ignoble, irregular. 

15. Inter (intro) = between, within; as, intermis- 
sion, introduce. 

10. Male (maiX) = ill, badly; as, malevolent, mal- 
practice. 

17. No)i = not; as, non-conductor. 

18. Ob (oc, of, op) = against ; as, objective, occur, 
offend, opponent. 

19. Pene (pen) = almost ; as, peninsula. 

20. Per (par, pel) — through; as, perceive, pardon, 
pellucid. 

21. Post = after ; as, postpone, posterity, postscript. 

22. Pre — before; as, prelude, prejudice, premature. 

23. Pro = forth, forward; as, promote, prompt, 
project. 

24. i&! (red) = 5ae&, again; as, record, recover, 
redeem. 

25. Retro — backward ; as, retract, retrospection. 
2G. $e (sed) = apart ; as, secede, seclude, sedition. 

27. Semi— half; as, semiannual, semicircle. 

28. AV> (sue, sud, suf, sum, sup, sur, sus ) = under; 
as, subject, succumb, sudden, suffuse, summon, support, 

surrogate, suspend. 

2'.». Super = above ; as, superabundant, supervise. 

:> )''. Trans = beyond^ through; as, transport, trans- 
parent. 



332 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

31. Uni (xm) = one ; as, unify, unison, unique, 
unite. 

32. Vice — in place of; as, vice-president, vice-consul. 

Examples for Practice. 

Collate, postscript, dissuade, proceed, succumb, sur- 
feit, vice-regent, abstract, interject, obstacle, conflict, 
counteract, exhale, retroversion, semilunar, suppress, 
superfine, imicycle, accord, allege, convert, amble, 
desist, non-productive, office, emit, biennial, aggrandize, 
arraign, assist, transcend, review, illusion, coeval, 
contravene. 

III. Greek Prefixes. 

1. A (an) = without ; as, aneroid, atheist, anarchy, 
anaesthetic. 

2. Am phi = on both sides; as, amphibious, amphi- 
theater. 

3. Ann = up, again ; as, analysis, anatomy, anagram. 

4. Anti = against; as, antipathy, antidote. 

5. Apo —away from; as, apology, apothegm, apo- 
plexy. 

6. Arch (archi)= chief; as, archbishop, architect, 
archipelago. 

7. Auto = self ; as, autocrat, autograph, automaton. 

8. Cata (cat, cath)= down ; as, catacomb, catalogue, 
catechism, cathedral. 

9. Din = through ; as, diameter, diagram, diaphanous. 

10. Dis = twice; as, dissyllable, dilemma, diph- 
thong. 

11. Dy% — ill ; as, dyspepsia, dysentery. 

12. Ec (ex) = out, forth; as, eccentric, ecstasy, 
exodus, exotic. 



WORD FORMATION. 333 

13. En (el, em)= in; as, enthusiasm, ellipse, 
emphasis. 

11. Epi = upon; as, epidemic, epitaph, epitome. 

15. En (ev)= well; as, eulogy, euphony, evangel. 

16. Hemi = half; as, hemisphere, hemistitch. 

17. Hyper = over, above ; as, hyperbole, hypercritical, 
hyperbola. 

18. Hypo (hyp) = under ; as, hypothesis, hypocrisy, 
hypotenuse, hyphen. 

19. Meta (met) = after, over ; as, metaphor, meta- 
physics. 

20. Mono (mon) = single, alone; as, monologue, 
monotone, monopoly, monarch. 

21. Ortho = right ; as, orthodox, orthoepy, orthog- 
raphy. 

22. Pan = all ; as, pantomime, panorama, panoply. 

23. Para (par) = besides ; as, paradox, parasite, 
parody. 

21. Peri = round ; as, period, perimeter, perios- 
teum. 

25. Pro = before ; as, problem, prologue, prognosis. 

20. Pros = towards; as, prosody, proselyte. 

27. Syn (syl, sym, sys)= with ; as, synopsis, sympa- 
thy, syllable. 

Examples for Practice. 

Emboss, metaphrase, paralysis, symbol, epidermis, 
amphibiology, archfiend, catarrh, diatribe, employ, 
eucharist, paroxysm, perimeter, apathy, anathema, 

autoharp, cataract, diacritical, catacomb, catholic, 
apostle, anecdote, system, hyperborean, epithet. 



331 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



SUFFIXES. 



The following suffiixes are those most commonly used 
in the language : — 

I. English Suffixes. 

I. English Suffixes to Nouns. 

1. ard, art = habitual ; as in, coward, drunkard, 
braggart. 

2. craft = skill; as in, woodcraft, witchcraft, honk- 
craft. 

3. d, t, th, form abstract nouns ; as in, deed. Hood, 
rift, mirth, wealth. 

4. dom = realm; as in, kingdom, Christendom, free- 
dom. 

5. en (a diminutive); as in, chicken, kitten (cat ). 

6. er denoting agent ; as in, player, baker, leader. 

7. hood, denoting state, rank, person ; as in, man- 
hood, brotherhood, childhood. 

8. ie (a diminutive); as in, birdie, kittie (eat). 

9. kin (a diminutive); as lambkin, napkin. 

10. ling (a diminutive); as in, duckling, hireling, 
gosling (goose). 

II. ne%%, denoting state or quality ; as in, weakness, 
weariness, darkness. 

12. ock (a diminutive); as in, hillock, bullock. 

13. red, denoting mode or fashion : as in, hatred, 
kindred. 

11. ship, denoting shape, state, or form : as in. lord- 
ship, friendship, township. 

15. stead, denoting place : as in, bedstead, homestead. 
1G. ster, denoting agent ; as in, teamster, maltster. 



WORD FORMATION. 335 

II. English Suffixes to Adjectives. 

17. ed or d, ending- for past participle ; as in, gifted, 
talented, deep-dyed. 

18. en, denoting material; as in, golden, wooden, 
brazen. 

19. em, denoting quarter ; as in, eastern, northern. 

20. fold, denoting multiplication ; as in, twofold 
threefold. 

21. fid = full; as in, wilful, sinful, helpful. 

22. less = loose from, without; as in, heartless, fearless. 

23. like (l.v)= like; as in, childlike, warlike, manly. 

24. some = like ; as in, winsome, irksome. 

25. teen = ten (added to); as in, fourteen, sixteen, 
fifteen (fiveteen). 

2(3. ty — ten (times); as in, thirty, forty, ninety. 

27. th, denoting relation to ; as in, fourth, seventh. 

28. ward, denoting direction; as in, eastward, sea- 
ward. 

29. y or cy = abounding in ; as in, juicy, clayey, 
dusty, blood)'. 

III. English Suffixes to Adverbs. 

30. ere, denoting place in ; as in, here, there, where. 

31. es or .s', old possessive ending, sometimes becom- 
ing <■>■ or se; as in, besides, needs, sometimes, else, once, 
hence. 

32. Iy, softened form of like; as in. badly, only 
( o i n ■ 1 \ ), gladly. 

33. ling, long, denoting direction ; as in, darkling, 
sidelong, headlong. 

34. ther, denoting place to: as in. hither, thither. 

35. ward, wards, denoting direction; as in. hither- 
ward, backwards, downwards. 



336 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



= manner, mode; as in, lengthwise, other- 
wise, endwise. 

IV. English Suffixes to Verbs. 

37. en, forms causative verbs from nouns and adjec- 
tives; as in, lighten (to cause to light), sweeten, broaden, 
freshen. 

38. er, r, gives a frequentative or intensive force to 
the original verb, or forms frequentative or intensive 
verbs out of adjectives ; as in, wander (wend), glimmer 
(gleam), flutter (flit), lower. 

39. k has a frequentative force; as in, talk (tell), 
hark (hear), stalk (steal). 

40. le, I, has a frequentative or a diminutive force : 
as in, drizzle, grapple, dwindle, waddle. 

41. se has a causative force; as in, curse, cleanse. 

Examples for Practice. 

Dearth, sapling, knighthood, fourfold, womanly, 
homeward, muddy, likewise, theft, goodness, fellow- 
ship, blindness, needful, godly, weaken, dukedom, 
nestling, spoonful, ghostlike, thence, dazzle, maiden, 
workmanship, bodkin, peerless, gladsome, whence, 
sparkle, writer, lifted, mirthless, seventeen, safely, 
highly, chickie, paddock, western, babyhood, matt ink, 
seventy, whether. 

II. Latin Suffixes. 

The most important suffixes of Latin origin are the 
following: — 

1. age, forming either abstract or collective nouns ; 
as in, courage, homage, vassalage, foliage. 



WORD FORMATION. 337 

2. an, ain, ane = connected with; as in, artisan, 
chaplain, mundane. 

3. al = belonging to ; as in, filial, regal. 

4. ant, ent, denoting agent; as in, assistant, account- 
ant, agent, rodent. 

5. ance, ancy, ence, ency, forming abstract nouns ; as 
in, distance, constancy, diligence, consistency. 

6. art/, ry, er = place for ; as in, aviary, granary, 
vestry, saucer. 

7. ary, ier, eer, er = one who ; as in, secretary, briga- 
dier, mountaineer, mariner. 

8. ate = one who ; as in, advocate, curate. 

9. el, le, I (diminutives); as in, seal from segillum 
= a little figure ; libel, a little book ; castle, a little 
fortification ; angle, a little corner. 

10. et, ette, let (diminutive); as in, turret, rosette, 
booklet. 

11. ice, ise, ess = that which; as in, justice, merchan- 
dise, distress. 

12. idle, cle, ule, cule (diminutive); as in, particle, 
vesicle, animalcule, tubercle. 

13. ine = related to; as in, divine, canine. 

14. ion, forming abstract noun; as in, opinion, action. 

15. ment, denoting condition, state, or act ; as in, 
document, instrument, ornament. 

16. mo'ity, forming abstract nouns; as in, testimony, 
mat liinony, acrimony. 

17. or y — place where; as in, armory, dormitory. 

18. or, er = one who ; as in, actor, teacher. 

19. tn'.i\ denoting female agent ; as in, executrix, 
testatrix. 

20. tmle, denoting condition; as in, altitude, forti- 
tude, beatitude. 



3o8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

21. ty, denoting state or quality; as in, cruelty. 

22. ure, denoting action, or result of action ; as in, 
picture, creature. 

23. y, denoting condition or faculty ; as in, misery, 
memory, victory. 

Examples for Practice. 

Student, floral, prudence, waiter, eaglet, compassion, 
parsimony, doctor, latitude, family, parentage, carnal, 
agency, private, addition, ejectment, ceremony, preacher, 
beatitude, misery, pillage, vacancy, engineer, lancet, 
evasion, monument, conservatory, sailor, fracture, syl- 
van, abundance, financier, streamlet, equine, ornament, 
refectory, administratrix, fortitude. 

III. Greek Suffixes. 

1. ac = of or pertaining to; as in, elegiac, demoniac. 

2. it; ic8 = of or belonging to; as in, logic, music, 
optics, homiletics. 

3. i%k (diminutive) ; as in, asterisk, obelisk. 

4. ist, st = one who ; as in, philologist, iconoclast, 
theist. 

5. ize, ise, forms factitive verbs ; as in, agonize, bap- 
tize, criticise. 

6. /M,m, passive ending suffix; as in, dogma, baptism. 

7. sis, action ; as in, emphasis, analysis. 

8. t, te, agent ; as in, comet, apostate. 

9. ter, tre = instrument or place; as in. metre, thea- 
ter, center. 

10. \j, forms abstract nouns ; as in, philosophy, mon- 
archy. 



WORD FORMATION. 339 

Examples for Practice. 

Necromancy, schism, physics, eulogist, stigmatize, 
dilemma, hypocrisy, melancholy, arithmetic, egotism, 
sophist, genesis, diorama, poet, apathy, analysis, planet, 
cardiac, cubic, annalist. 

The following roots and stems with derivative words 
are given for the purpose of familiarizing the pupil with 
leading roots, and of furnishing material for practice : — 

I. Latin Boots. 
Ag, ac — do; action, agent. 
Angul = a corner ; angle, triangle, quadrangle. 
Ann = a year ; annual, biennial, anniversary. 
Aqu = water ; aqueous, aquatic, aquarium. 
Bell = war ; bellicose, rebel, belligerent. 
Brev — short; brevity, brief, abbreviate. 
Cap, capt, cep = take ; captive, accept, capacity. 
Cam —flesh; carnal, carnival, carnation. 
Cav = hollow ; cave, concave, cavity. 
Cent = a hundred; century, centurion, cent. 
Civ = a citizen; civic, civilian, civil. 
Clar = clear ; declare, clarion, clarify. 
Clin = bend; incline, decline, recline. 
Cor — a heart ; cordial, discord, record. 
Coron = a crown ; coronet, coroner, coronation. 
Corp = a body ; corporation, incorporate, corpse. 
Oral — believe; credit, creed, credibility. 
Cub — lie down; incubate, cubit, recumbent. 
Gulp — afault : culprit, inculpate, culpable. 
Cur = a care ; curator, accurate, secure. 
Be = Q-od; Deity, deify, divine. 
Bic, diet = say ; dictate, verdict, dictionary. 



340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Luc, duct = lead; educate, produce, induct. 

Facfact — make ; factor, manufacture, faction. 

Ferr = bear; suffer, infer, transfer, differ. 

Fin = end ; finish, infinite, infinitive. 

Fleet, flex = bend ; inflect, flexible, inflexion. 

Flu = flow ; fluid, influx, affluent. 

Fort = strong ; fortress, fortify. 

Frang = break ; frangible, fragment, infringe. 

Frater = brother ; fraternal, fratricide. 

Fug = flee; refuge, fugitive, subterfuge. 

Hub = have; habit, habitable, prohibit. 

Imper — command; imperative, imperial. 

Jac, jee, ject = throw; object, subject, inject. 

Leg, Jeet — gather, read; legend, legible, collect. 

Leg = send; legate, legacy, delegate. 

Leg = law; legal, legislate, legitimate. 

Liber = free ; liberal, liberate, liberty. 

Liber = book ; library, librarian. 

Lig = bind ; ligament, religion. 

Liter = letter ; literary, literal, literature. 

Loc —place; local, dislocate, locomotive. 

Luc = light; lucid, elucidate, pellucid. 

Lud = play ; elude, ludicrous, interlude. 

Lumen = light ; luminous, luminary, illumine. 

Lun = moon; binary, lunacy, sublunary. 

Manu = hand ; manual, manufacture, manuscript. 

Mater — mother ; maternal, matricide, matron. 

Manor = mindful ; memory, commemorate. 

Ment = mind ; mental, demented. 

Mitt, miss = send ; remittance, mission, commit. 

Mort = death; mortality, immortal. 

JVeet, vex = tie; connect, annex. 

Noct = night ; nocturnal, equinoctial. 



WORD FORMATION. 341 

Nov =new ; novel, innovate. 

Or = pray ; orator, oration, peroration. 

Pater = father ; paternal, patrimony. 

Pet, -petit = seek; petition, petulant, appetite. 

Poen = punishment ; penal, penitence, repent. 

Pon, pout = place ; deponent, position, impost. 

Port = carry ; export, transport, deportment. 

Prim = first ; primary, primate, primitive. 

Rap, rapt = seize; rapine, rapture. 

Rog, rogat = ask ; prorogue, interrogate. 

Sci — know; science, conscience, omniscient. 

Scrib, script = write; inscribe, transcribe, scribble. 

Sec = cut ; bisect, section, intersect. 

Spec, sped = see ; inspect, specimen, circumspection. 

Stru, struct = build; construe, structure. 

TJn = one ; unite, union. 

Urb = city ; urbane, suburbs. 

Yen = come ; venture, advent, convene. 

Ver = true ; aver, verdict, revert. 

Verb — word; verb, verbal, proverb. 

Vid, vis = see ; provide, vision, visit. 

Volo, volut — roll ; revolve, evolution, volume. 

II. Greek Roots. 

Agon = <->>nfesf ; agony, antagonist. 

All = another; allopathy, allegory. 

Angel = messenger ; angel, evangel, archangel. 

Anthrop — man ; anthropology, misanthrope. 

Arch — rule ; monarch, archbishop, archetype. 

Auto = self; autocrat, autobiography, autograph. 

Bi = life : biography, biology. 

Chron — time; chronology, chronic, chronometer. 



342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Dem = people ; democrat, epidemic. 

Gam = marriage; bigamy, monogamist. 

Ge = earth; geology, geometry. 

Genu —produce; genesis, genealogy, oxygen. 

Graph = write; telegraph, graphic, biography. 

Heli = sun; heliograph, heliotype. 

Hod = way ; method, period, exodus. 

Hud = ivater ; hydraulic, hydrophobia, hydrogen. 

Klin = bend; clinical, clematis, climax. 

Kosm = order ; cosmogony, cosmetic. 

Kuhl = circle ; cyclone, cyclometer, cycle. 

Log — word ; logic, mineralogy, physiology. 

Metr = measure; meter, metronome, barometer. 

Mon = alone ; monograph, monopoly, monotone. 

Onom = name; synonym, patron}iiiic. 

Path = suffering ; pathology, sympathy. 

Pan = all ; pantheism, panoply. 

Pher = bear; periphery, phosphorus. 

Phil = love; philosophy, philharmonic. 

Phon = sound; phonic, phonetic, euphony. 

Phot — light; photometer, photography. 

Phus = nature; physics, physician. 

Pole = make ; poet, poetic, pharmacopoeia. 

Polu = many ; polysyllabic, polygamy. 

Proto = first; prototype, protoplasm. 

Rhe = flow ; rhetoric, catarrh, rheumatism. 

Skope = me; microscope, spectroscope. 

Tele = distant; telegraph, telephone. 

Temn = out ; anatomy, lithotomy. 

The = God; theist, theology, enthusiast. 

Trep = turn ; trophy, tropic, heliotrope. 



APPENDIX III. 



PROSODY. 



Prose — words in their best order; poetry — the best 
words in their best order. — Coleridge. 

Poetry is the presentment, in musical form, to the imagi- 
nation of noble grounds for the noble emotions. — Raskin. 

Verse is the form in which poetry commonly appears. 

Verse is from the Latin versus — a turning, and is 
so called because when the writer has written the cer- 
tain number of syllables constituting the verse (line) 
he turns, as it were, to begin another verse. 

Prosody is that part of Grammar which treats of the 
laws of verse. 

Prosody is from the Greek prosodia — time or accent. 
Prosody in its meaning now includes all the laws of 
verse formation. 

Accent is the prominence in utterance given to a 
particular syllable in a word of more than one syllable 
or to a particular monosyllabic word of a group of 
monosyllabic words. 

In individual words this prominence is given largely 
by the change in tone of the accented syllable. 

Pronounce the following words and note that the 
accented syllables have a different tone from the un- 
accented syllables : — 

iU3 



Accent. 



344 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

goodness, intone, revulsion, instantly, coincide, ex- 
ceedingly, notwithstanding. 

In connected discourse, the prominence is given by 
combining change of tone with stress of utterance. 

Longfellow's home was in Cambridge. 

Where is he ? He is here. 

Khythm. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accented and 

unaccented syllables. 

Rhythm is from the Greek rhythmos — measured 
movement. 

METER. 

Meter. Meter is the measure of the kind and number of feel 

in a verse. 

Meter is from the Greek met ran — rule or measure. 

A foot is the unit measure of verse, and consists of 
one accented and one or two unaccented syllables. 

Let ' over a syllable indicate an accented syllable, 
and x over a syllable indicate an unaccented syllable ; 

X ' 'X 

as, refuse, coming. 

Scanning is the dividing of a verse into its metrical 
units, feet. 

The kinds of feet most used in English are the dis- 
syllabic and the trisyllabic. 

The dissyllabic feet are the trochee and the it mint*. 
The trisyllabic feet are the dactyl and the anapest. 

These terms are borrowed from the classical lan- 
guages and are retained because there are no English 
equivalents for them. 



PKOSODY. 



345 



It must be remembered, however, that English verse 
is distinctly different from classical verse. English 
rhythm is based on the regular recurrence of accented 
and unaccented syllables, while classical verse is based 
on the regular recurrence of syllables with long and 
short vowels. The one is based on syllabic accent and 
the other on syllabic length of vowels. 

The trochee consists of one accented syllable followed Trochee, 

' X 'X 

by an unaccented one ; as, backward, joyful. 

Trochee is from the Greek trochos — a running, and 
was so called because of the sprightly movement it 
imparted to the verse. 

The iambus consists of one unaccented syllable fol- iambus. 

X ' X ' 

lowed by an accented one ; as, impel, return. 

Iambus is from the Greek iambos — a lampoon, and 
was so called because this poetic foot was much used 
by early satiric writers. 



The dactyl consists of one accented syllable followed 

'XX' XX 

by two unaccented ones ; as, misery, ancestor. 

Dactyl is from the Greek dad ylos — a linger, and was 
so called because, like the linger that has one long joint 
and two short ones, this foot in classic verse consisted 
of one long syllable and two short ones. 



Dactyl. 



The anapest consists of two unaccented syllables 

XX' 'XX 

followed by an accented one; as. intercept, disarray. 

Anapest is from the Greek anapaistos — struck back, 

and was so called because it was the opposite of the 

dactyl in metrical arrangement. 



Anapest. 



346 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Verses are named from their meter, i.e. the kind and 
number of feet in a verse. 

1. Kind of feet. A verse composed of trochees is a 
Trochaic verse; of iambuses, an Iambic; of dactyls, a 
Dactylic ; and of anapests, an Anapestic. 

2. Number of feet. A verse composed of one foot 
is a Monometer verse; of two feet, Dimeter; of three 
feet, Trimeter; of four feet, Tetrameter ; of live feet, 
Pentameter; of six feet, Hexameter. 

A Trochaic Trimeter = a verse made up of three 
trochaic feet. 

A Dactylic Dimeter = a verse made up of two dac- 
tylic feet. 

If a verse has one more syllable than the regular 
measure, it is called Hypermeter, (-(-); if one syllable 
less, Catalectic, ( — ). 

I. Trochaic Verse. 

' X t X 'X 'X 

But to | see her | was to | love her | = 4 T's 

' X 'X ' X ' X 

Love but | her, and | love for|ever. = 4 T's 

linens. 



Art is | long, and | time is | Heeling, = 4 T's 

' X ' X 'X 

And our | hearts, though | strong and brave, = 4 T's 
Still like | muffled | drums are J beating = 4 T's 

I X ' X ' X ' 

Funeral | marches | to the | grave. = 4 T's 

— Longfellow. 



PROSODY. 347 

II. Iambic Vebsb. 

Abide | with me ; | fast falls | the evjentide. = 5 I's 

The dark|ness deep|ens — Lord, | with me | abide. = 5 I's 

— Lyte. 

What mort|al knows, | = 2 I's 

Whence come | the tint | and od|or of | the rose ? | = 5 I's 

What prob|ing deep | = 2 I's 

Has ev|er solved | the mystjery | of sleep ? | =5 I's 

— Aldrich. 

X ' X ' X I X I 

Or light | or dark, | or short | or tall, | = 4 I's 

X ' X / X I X ' 

She sets | a spring | to snare | them all ; | = 4 I's 

x ' x ' x i x ' 

All's one | to her — | above | her fan [ = 4 I's 

X ' X ' X ' X ' 

She'd make | sweet eyes | at CaJ iban. | = 4 I's 

—Aldrich. 

Some feel|ings are | to mort|als giv|en, = 4 I's -f 

With less | of earth | in them | than heav en.= 4 I's -f 

— Scott. 

IIT. Dactylic Vbbse. 

/ X X 'X X 

Bird of the amber beak, | =2 D's 

Bird of the | golden wing! = 2 D's 

— Stedman. 



348 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

' XX 'XX 

Theirs not to | make reply, | = 2 D's 

' X X ' X X 

Theirs not to j reason why, | = L' D's 

' XX'XX 

Theirs but to | do and die. | =21 >'s 

— Ti'n a if son. 



r xx 'xx ' x x 

Now with a | sprightlier | springiness, | = 3 D's 
Bounding in | triplicate | syllables. | = 3 D's 



'XX 'XX 

Bird of the | wilderness, = 2 1 >'s 

'X X 'XX 

Blithesome and | cumberless, = 2 1 >'s 

'XX 'XX 'XX 

Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea ; = 3 D's + 
Emblem of | happiness, | = 2 D's 

' X X 'X X 

Blest is thy | dwelling place, = 2 D's 

'XX' XX 'X X 

! to a|bide in the | desert with | thee. =3 D's + 

IV. Anapestic Verse. 

XX' XX' XX 'XX' 

At the close | of the day, \ when the ham let is still, | = 1 A's 

And the mort|als the sweets | of forget fulness prove, | 

= 4 A's 

X X ' XX'XX' XX' 

And when naught | but the tor] rent is heard <>n the hill, j 

= 4 A's 

X X ' XX'XX /XX' 

And there's naught | but the nightingale's song in I he grove. 

— BeatHe. = 4 A's 



PROSODY. 349 

XX' XX' XX'XX' 

And the tear | that is wiped | with a lit|tle address | = 4 A's 

May be followed perhaps | by a smile. | = 3 A's 

— Cowper. 



V. Mixed Verse. 

A verse made up of different kinds of feet is called 
a mixed verse. 

X 'X ' X ' 

The mos|sy marb|les rest | = 3 I's 

XX' X ' X 

On the lips | that he | had pressed | = 1 A and 2 I's 

X X ' 

In their bloom. | = 1 A 

— Holm i's. 



XX'XX' X ' X ' 

And the mold|ering dust | that years | have made | 

= 2 A's and 2 I's 

X X ' X ' X ' 

Is a mer|ry meal | for him. | = 1 A and 2 I's 

— Dickens. 



VI. Blank Verse. 

' X ' X 'X 'X 

As un|to the | bow the | cord is, 

So mi to the | man is | woman ; 

' X 'X ' X ' X 

Though she | bends him, j she obeys him, 

Though she ! draws him. I yd she j follows, — 

I'seless [ eaeh withoul the I other. 

— Longfellow. 



Khym< 



350 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RHYME. 

Rhyme, or rime, is the correspondence of sounds at 
the ends of verses. 

Rhyme is from the Anglo-Saxon rim — number. 



Elements of Rhyme. 
Elements. Four elements enter into a perfect rhyme. 

1. The vowel sounds of the rhyming syllables must 
be the same ; as, lair-fair, beat-meet. 

2. The final consonant sounds must be the same ; as, 
lend— send, backs-tax (ks). 

3. The preceding consonant sounds must be differ- 
ent ; as, tendsend, binding— finding. 

4. The rhyming syllables must be accented alike ; 
as, blinking-thinking, excel-repel. 



Kinds. 



Kinds of Rhyme. 
Single. 1- Single Rhymes (male rhymes) are words of one 

syllable rhyming together ; as, — 

Maid of Athens, ere we part, 

Give, oh, give me back my heart! — B>ir<m. 

2. Double Rhymes (female rhymes) arc words, the 
last two syllables of which rhyme together : as, — 

Be still, sad heart ! and cease repining ; 

Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. — Longfellow. 

3. Triple Rhymes are words, the last three corre- 
sponding syllables of which rhyme together — 

One more unfortunate, 
Weary of breath, 
Rashly importunate. 
Gone to her death. — Hood. 



PROSODY. 351 

Rhyming syllables occur regularly at the end of 
verses, but sometimes the last syllable of a verse rhymes 
with a syllable in the middle of the same verse ; as, — 

Then gently scan your brother man, 
Still gentler sister woman; 
Though they may gang a kennin wrang, 
To step aside is human. — Bums. 

Blank verse is unrhymed verses. It is usually em- 
ployed in epic and dramatic productions. 

THE C7ESURA. 02esura , 

The caesura is a rest or pause in some part of a verse. 
It is regularly used in long verses and is frequently in 
short ones. 

Its use enables the poet to give musical variety to 
his verse by varying tbe position of the caesura. Some- 
times in the longer verses there are two caesuras in the 
same verse ; as, — 

We speak of friends || and their fortunes. 

And of what they did || and said, 

Till the dead || alone seem living, 

And the living || alone seem dead. — Longfellow. 

No mower was there || to startle the birds 
With the noisy whet || of his reeking scythe: 
The quail, || like a cow-hoy || calling his herds, 
Whistled to tell || that his heart was blithe. — Read. 

But pleasures || are like poppies || spread ; 

You seize the flower, || its bloom is shed. — Hums. 

Tell them, dear, || thai if eyes were made Eor seeing. 
Then Beauty II is its own excuse •• Eor being. — Emerson. 
Who bids me Hope, || and iii that charming word 
lias peace and transport || to my soul restored. — Lyttleton, 



352 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Stanza. 



Couplet. 



Triplet. 



Quatrain. 



live Verse 
Stanza. 



STANZA. 

A stanza — often incorrectly called a verse — is a 
division of a poem consisting of two or more verses. 
Stanza is from the old Italian stantia — a resting place. 

The following are the more common stanzas : — 

I. A stanza of two verses (distich or couplet). 

Maud Muller on a summer's day 

Raked the meadow sweet with hay. — Wlrittier. 

See also Tennyson's " Locksley Hall." 

II. A stanza of three verses (triplet). 

I wandered forth; the sun and air 

I saw bestowed with equal care 

On good and evil, foul and fair. — Whit tier. 

See also Tennyson's " The Two Voices." 

III. A stanza of four verses (quatrain). 

I count not the hours I spend 

In wandering hy the sea ; 

The forest is my loyal friend, 

A Delphic shrine to me. — Emerson. 

See also Gray's " Elegy in a Country Church-yard." 

IV. A stanza of five verses. 

Kindlier to me the place of birth - 
That first my tottering footsteps trod; 
There may be fairer spots on earth. 
But all their glories are not worth 
The virtue of the native sod. — Lmrcll. 

See also Shelley's " Ode to a Skylark " and Whittier's 
"The Over-Heart." 



PROSODY. 



353 



V. A stanza of six verses (sextant). 

A weapon that comes down as still 

As snowflakes fall upon the sod ; 

But executes a freeman's will, 

As lightning does the will of God ; 

And from its force, nor doors nor locks 

Can shield you; — 'tis the ballot box. — Pierpont. 

See also Byron's "The Isles of Greece." 

VI. A stanza of seven verses. 

In peace, Love tunes the shepherd's reed; 

In war, he mounts the warrior's steed ; 

In halls, in gay attire is seen ; 

In hamlets, dances on the green. 

Love rules the court, the camp, the grave, 

And men below and saints above; 

For love is heaven, and heaven is love. — Scott. 

See also Bret Harte's " A Grayport Legend. " 



Sextant. 



Seven Verse 
Stanza. 



VII. The stanza of eight verses (ottava rima ). 

Rome ! my country ! city of the soul ! 

The orphans of the heart must turn to thee, 

Lone mother of dead empires! and control 

In their shut breasts their petty misery. 

What are our woes and sufferance? ('<nnc and see 

The cypress, hear the owl, and plod your way 

( )'er steps of broken thrones and temples, j e ! 

Where agonies are evils of a day — 

A world is at our feet as fragile as our clay. Byron. 

The foregoing is the heroic stanza of the Italians. 

Sec also Beattie's "Moraine Sounds." 



Ottava 
Rima, 



354 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Spenserian 
Stanza. 



Sonnet. 



VIII. The stanza of nine verses. 

A pleasing land of drowsyhead it was, 
Of dreams that were before the half-shut eye; 
And of gay castles in the clouds that pass, 
Forever flashing round a summer sky : 
There eke the soft delights, that witchingly 
Instill a wanton sweetness through the heart, 
And the calm pleasures always hover'd nigh ; 
But whate'er smacked of noyance or unrest, 
Was far, far off expelled from this delicious rest. 

— Thomson. 
See also Byron's "Childe Harold." 

The foregoing stanza is sometimes called the Spen- 
serian stanza because it was first used by Spenser in 
" The Faerie Queen." 

For examples of longer stanzas, see Moore's " Oft in 
the Stilly Night," and Campbell's " The Lust Man." 

The Sonnet is regarded by some authors as a stanza, 
but it is, in reality, a short poem of fourteen verses, 
containing two rhyming divisions, one of eight (octave) 
and the other of six verses (sestette). In the octave 
the first verse rhymes with the fourth, fifth, and eighth 
verses, and the second verse rhymes with the third, 
sixth, and seventh verses. In the sextette the first verse 
usually rhymes with the fourth, the second with the 
fifth, and the third with the sixth verse. 



Canto. A canto is a division of a narrative poem. 

See Scott's " Lady of the Lake," and Byron's "Childe 
Harold's Pilgrimagfe." 



Eefrain. A refrain, is the repetition of a word or words at the 

end of stanzas. 



PROSODY. 355 

See Longfellow's " Excelsior," and "The Chamber 
over the Gate." 

Hymns are usually in the form of quatrains, and Hymns 
those most commonly used are : — 

1. Long Meter (L. M.), a quatrain of iambic tetram- 
eters. 

2. Comma)) Meter (C. M.), a quatrain consisting of 
iambic tetrameters in the first and third verses, and 
iambic trimeters in the second and fourth verses. 

3. Short Meter (S. M.), a quatrain consisting of 
iambic trimeters in the first, second, and fourth verses, 
and an iambic tetrameter in the third verse. 

Other hymn meters are usually designated by the 
number of syllables in the verses : as, 7s & 6s ; 8s, 7s, 
& 4s; lis; 10s; 8s & 6s; lis & 10s; 7s, 8s, & 6s. 

Examples foe Peactice. 

Tell the kind of stanza, kind of verse, locate the 
caesura, and give the kind and number of feel in each 
verse of the following selections : — 

1. Can the poets, in the rapture 
( >f their tinrsi dreams. 
Taint the lily of the valley 
Fairer than she seems '.' - Saxe. 

2. Bonnie little burnie, 
Winding through the grass, 

Time shall never waste thee 

Or drain thy sparkling glass. — Mackay. 



356 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Sing again the song you sung, 
When we were together young — 

When there were but you and I 
Underneath the summer sky. — Curtis. 

4. And if I should live to be 
The last leaf upon the tree 

In the spring, 
Let them smile, as I do now, 
At the old forsaken bough 

Where I cling. — Holmes. 

5. The busy shuttle comes and goes 
Across the rhymes, and deftly weaves 
A tissue out of autumn leaves, 

With here a shuttle, there a rose. — Ablrich. 

6. Fades the light 
And afar 

Goeth day, cometh night, 
And a star 
Leadeth all, 
Speedeth all, 
To their rest. — Bret Harte. 

7. On the wild-rose tree 
Many buds there be, 
Yet each sunny hour 

Hath but one fair flower. — R. W. Gilder. 

8. Flow on, thou shining river. 
But ere thou reach the sea. 
Seek Ella's bower and give her 
The wreath I fling to thee. — Moore. 

9. Lead, kindly light, amid the encircling gloom, 

Lead thou me on. 
The night is dark and I am far from home, 
Lead thou me on. — Newman. 



PROSODY. 357 

10. One more unfortunate 
Weary of breath, 
Rashly importunate, 
Gone to her death ! 
Take her up tenderly, 
Lift her with care, 
Fashioned so slenderly, 
Young and so fair. — JLxnl. 

11. Then why pause with indecision 
When bright angels in thy vision 

Beckon thee to fields Elysian? — Longfellow. 

1'2. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. — Gray. 

13. What is life when love is flown ? 

We breathe, indeed, we groan, we sigh, 
And seem to live, and yet we die ; 
There is no life alone. — Stoddard. 

14. To her bier 
Comes the year 

Not with weeping and distress as mortals do, 
But to guide her way to it, 
All the trees have torches lit. — Larcom. 

15. Ring out old shapes of foul disease, 
Ring out the narrowing lust of gold ; 
King out the thousand wars of old, 

King in the thousand years of peace. — T< nnyson, 

l(i. Know ye the hind where the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime; 
Where bhe rage of ili<' vulture, the love of the turtle. 

Now melt into | sorrow, now madden to Crime? 

— Byron. 



358 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

17. For of all sail words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these : It might have been ! 

— Whittier 

18. Lord of the universe ! shield us and guide us, 

Trusting thee always, through shadow and sun! 
Thou hast united us, who shall divide us '.' 
Keep us, O keep us, the many in one! 

Up with our banner bright, 

Sprinkled with starry light, 
Spread its fair emblems from mountain to shore, 

While through the sounding sky, 

Loud rings the Nation's cry, — 
Union and Liberty! One evermore. — Holmes. 



APPENDIX IV. 



NOTES FOR TEACHERS. 

To children at their entrance upon any sort of knowledge 
everything of itself is difficult, and the great use and skill 
of a teacher is to make all as easy as he can. — John Locke. 

A teacher should, above all things, first induce a desire 
in the pupil for the acquisition he wishes to impart. 

— Horace Mann. 

How shall he give kindling in whose own inward man 
there is no live coal, but all is burnt out to a dead gram- 
matical cinder? — Tliomas Carlyle. 

There is no teaching until the pupil is brought into the 
same state or principle in which you are; a transfusion 
takes place ; he is you and you are he; there is teaching. 

— lialjifi Waldo Emerson. 

Attempt to teach the young but little at a time; this 
will be easier to impart, easier to receive, and surer to be 
retained. Hosea Ballou. 

Beware of routine; it is fatal in teaching. 

— Jacques Matter. 

The work in the foregoing pages has not been ar- 
ranged into ready-made lessons, to which all pupils 
must be fitted, as it has seemed wiser to relegate to the 
teachers of the different grades the problem of how 
best to lit the daily lessons to the capacities of their 



360 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

pupils. In the arrangement of daily lessons the author 
would suggest to teachers that, at the beginning of the 
work, there will be a greater danger of having tin- 
lessons too long than too short. HasteD slowly at 
the outset if you would hasten rapidly as you mar the 
end. No subject is difficult after its essentials are well 
mastered. Review frequently. Encourage pupils to 
search for fresh illustrative sentences in review work. 

Much of success in teaching grammar depends <>n 
the enthusiastic mental attitude of the teacher. The 
teacher must be filled with the subject, not merely w itli 
its skeleton of rules and forms, but, as well, with the 
vital glow and color as revealed in its strength and 
beauty when applied to literature. 

The subject of Word Building has been put in the 
appendices rather than at any definite place in the body 
of the work. From experience in the classroom the 
author is fully convinced that the best results are 
reached when the work is at least extended throughout 
the course in grammar, as length of time is an impor- 
tant factor in enabling pupils to grow into the appre- 
hension and application of word formation. The subject 
should be introduced at such times and in such amounts 
as the teacher shall determine to be most effective in 
enabling pupils to obtain its ready mastery. 

The remaining appendices are not to lie studied at 
the completion of the general work of the book, but at 
such opportune times in the course of the work as the 
teacher shall decide. 

The literary illustrations given throughout the book 
are not to be regarded as sufficient for analysis or illus- 
tration, but the teacher should have the rules and 
principles which have been learned constantly applied 



NOTES FOR TEACH KRS. 361 

to literature, as grammar, in the spirit of its investiga- 
tion, leads into the subject of literature. 

Note 1. — Some prefer to regard principal and sub- 
ordinate sentences as principal and subordinate clauses. 
Such a use of terms emphasizes the function rather than 
the form. When form alone is considered it seems 
better to refer the term clause to the sentence use and 
not to sentence formation. 

Note 2. — A great amount of practice should be 
given pupils in this phase of the work. Reading books 
should be employed, and many pages required to be 
expressed in this visual form. The work should include 
long sentences, having subordinate sentences dependent 
upon principal or upon subordinate sentences. This 
visual expression should be expressed as much as 
possible in one continuous plane, and not broken, as 
was necessary in sentence 1, page 49. 

Note 2 a. — This should be considered at the end of 
Plural Number of Nouns, page 77. 

In the English language are many foreign nouns 
whose foreign plurals have been adopted as English 
plurals. The tendency, however, is to form the plural 
of foreign nouns in the usual English way ; as dogmas, 
Formulas, indexes, memorandums. 

The following comprise the more common foreign 
words with their foreign plurals. 

Sl\..i I \l:. Pi. IK M . 

axis axes 

analysis analyses 

amanuensis amanuenses 



302 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Singular. 

erratum 

animalculum 

species 

apparatus 

hypothesis 

focus 

beau 

cherub 

genus 

vertex 

phenomenon 

crisis 

miasma 

index 

bandit 

radix 

stimulus 

parenthesis 

series 

larva 

effluvium 

virtuoso 

formula 

terminus 

seraph 

basis 

thesis 

stigma 

dictum 



Plural. 

errata 

animalcula 

species 

apparatus 

hypotheses 

foci 

beaux 

cherubim 

genera 

vertices 

phenomena 

crises 

miasmata 

indices 

banditti 

radices 

stimuli 

parentheses 

series 

larvae 

effluvia 

virtuosi 

formulae 

termini 

seraphim 

bases 

theses 

stigmata 

dicta 



Note 3. — The term neuter gender, which means 
neither gender, should not be given under gender- 
nouns, as a noun cannot have no gender and at the 
same time be a noun of a given kind of gender. 



NOTES FOR TEACHERS. 363 

Note 4. — The term nominative is taken from the 
Latin nominativus, the naming ease, which was so called 
because its relation in Latin was the subjective relation, 
or a relation explanatory thereof. 

Inasmuch as three English cases have to express all 
the relations that were expressed in Latin by six eases, 
it is obvious that the technieal ease-term of the Latin 
must have a wider application in English and embody 
more relations. So varied are the relations expressed 
by the nominative and objective cases in English, that 
a formulated summary of their relations is the only 
practical definition which can be given. 

Note 5. — Some pronouns are used in both noun and 
adjective uses. From the consideration of these uses 
of pronouns a great diversity of opinion has arisen, 
which has resulted in marked differences in the treat- 
ment and classification of pronouns. Inasmuch as the 
reference idea in the pronoun is never lost, and rarely 
modified, when used with a noun, it seems best to teach 
pronouns as pronouns, whether used in noun or in adjec- 
tive relations. The possessive case of pronouns, like 
the possessive case of nouns, should not be considered 
an adjective relation, although it may be equivalent to it. 

Note 6. — Person is not. properly speaking, a prop- 
erty of nouns, for every noun having grammatical rela- 
tion in the sentence designates only the relation of the 
person spoken of. It has sometimes been assumed that 
a ooun in apposition defining the meaning of a pronoun 
takes the same personal relation as the pronoun. In 
such an assumption due consideration is qo1 given t<> 

the fact that a noun being used as a name is Limited by 
its definition to erne personal relation ; viz.. the person 



364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or thing named; while a pronoun, being a reference 

word, has no such limitation. 

Note 7. — The neuter pronoun is generally known as 
a personal pronoun of the third person, neuter. If 
gender is based on sex, it follows that the neuter pro- 
noun cannot be used as a reference word when relating 
to sex. 

Note 8. — It is sometimes claimed that a supple- 
mentary relative pronoun is, in reality, a coordinate 
connective, and with its antecedent clause forms a 
compound sentence. It is an equivalent of such <i '■■in- 
struction, but a relative of any kind by its very nature 
is always a subordinate connective, and introduces a 
subordinate sentence. 

Note 9. — As the verbs in the formation of potent ial 
verb phrases retain or, to a great extent, do not lose 
their original or notional verb meanings which, as aux- 
iliaries of mode, they must needs do, it is not entirely 
evident that such a modal classification is essentially 
logical. Nor is it clear that the mere distinguishing 
of these verb forms and the simple reference of them to 
a mode, based on general uses and forms, can produce 
as definite knowledge of their meanings and uses as can 
be reached through continually viewing these verba 
and their uses in the light of their original and act pi i red 
meanings. 

Note 10. — The relative pronouns and adverbs are 
all derived from demonstratives. It will be seen, there- 
fore, that a demonstrative in the full construction should 
accompany the antecedent. We also find the antece- 






NOTES FOR TEACHERS. 



305 



dent sometimes repeated in the relative clause. The 
relative, therefore, in the full construction, connects two 
different cases of the same noun. The antecedent of 
the relative, as we have seen, is often omitted, espe- 
cially the antecedent of relative adverbs, when emphasis 
is not required. 

List of Correlatives. 



Dem. 


Bel. 


Interrog. 


Compound Indef. 


he, she, it, 


who, 


who? which? 


whoever, 


this, that, the, 


which, 


what ? 


whichever, 


a, any, 


that, 




whosoever, etc. 




such, so, 


as, 


how ? 




then, 


when, 


when ? 




in that case, then, 


if, 


if (indirect 




therefore. 


because. 


question" 


>. 



Note 11. — In the earlier periods of languages the 
prepositions appear as simple local adverbs used to 
emphasize the meaning of the verb ; they were called 
prepositions because they were placed before the verb 
(Latin praeposiio) and often compounded with it. 

At that period the case ending indicated the relation 
of the noun to the verb. These prefixes which arc still 
seen in many pure English words, as well as frequently 
in words derived from other languages, were sometimes 
separated from the verbs by tmesis, but still retained 
their original force. As the development of language 
weni on, these adverbs gradually came to In' placed 
before cases of nouns to emphasize the relation indi- 
cated by the ease eliding. W lull case endings for the 

most pari disappeared, although placed after the verb, 

the\ still retained the name preposition and became the 
relation words. 



366 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They did not, however, lose their adverbial force, 

which is still seen : — 

(a) In their use as prefixes both separable and 
inseparable. 

(7>) In their general use, showing adverbial rela- 
tions in all languages. 

(c) In their common use as pure adverbs. 

Note 12. — The general relations expressed by the 
prepositions are : — 

I. Adverbial, when the first term is a verb, adjective, 
or adverb ; and show: — 

1. Indirect object. 

2. Place to which. 

3. Place in which. 

4. Place from which. 

5. Source, origin, separation. 
0. Means or instrument, agent. 

7. Cause or reason. 

8. Name, specification, price, time. 

II. Adjective, when first term is a noun or pro- 



noun 



1. Quality. 2. Possession. 



These relations may be grouped in various ways, but 
all depend upon the meaning of the preposition. 

Prepositions will present no difficulty to the learner 
as soon as the habit is formed of disposing of them in 
this manner, but, on the other hand, will add greatly 
to the interest of the pupils. 

It will be readily evident to the pupils that the 
preposition has more to do with the verb than with 
the noun. 



INDEX. 



The references are to paragraph numbers unless otherwise specified. 
App., appendix. 



A, origin of, 180. 

How used, 180. 

An before /(, 187. 

Position of, 190, 191. 

Repetition of, 192. 

Uses of, 398. 
Abstract noun, 19. 
Accent, App. III. 
Active ( voice), 213. 
Adjective pronouns, see Inde, 

pronouns. 
Adjectives, 46, 173. 

Substantive, 48. 

Phrases, 63. 

Predicate, 175. 

Attributive, 176. 

Appositive, 177. 

Descriptive, 178. 

Quantitive, 17'.). 

Demonstrative, 180. 

( Irdinal numeral, 181. 

Cardinal numeral, 182. 

Articles, is:!. 

Comparison of, 198. 

Preposil ions, 870. 

Clauses, in. 

Syntax of, Rule XIV. 
Adjunct, App. II. 
Adverbial clauses, 112. 
Adverbial comparison, 201. 
Advi rbial objt cttik ,111. 



Adverbial phrases, 03. 
Adverbs, 51,333. 

Classes of, 335. 

Simple adverbs, 339. 

Demonstrative, 340. 

Interrogative, 341. 

Relative, 342. 

Demonstrative, the, 343. 

Relative, the, :J4;3. 

Phrase, 351. 

Comparison of, 352, 350. 

Tn parse an adverb, 357. 

Syntax of, Rule XV. 
Adversative conjunctions, 'Ml \ 3. 
Affix, App. II. 
Agreement. 

Appositive with noun, Rule XL, 

110. 

Verb with subject. Rule XII. 
Pronoun with antecedent, XIII. 

Predicate noun with subject, 98, 
109. 
.1//, 135. 

Alii rnative conjunctions, -">77 : 2. 
Alternative pronouns, L35. 

An. see A. 

Analysis, 72. 
Logical, 71. 
Grammatical, 75. 
Expression of, 70. 
Of sentences, 899-418. 

.l//r/y„>7, App. III. 

Anothi /'. 184, note. 



:;<;; 



308 



INDEX. 



Antecedent, 120. 

Form of, 147. 

Agreement of pronoun and, 
Rule XIII. 

Omitted, 164. 
Any, 136. 

Apostrophe in possessive, 113. 
Appositive, 99. 

Nominative, 100. 

Objective, 110. 
Articles, see Adjectives. 
As, uses of, 391. 
Amjht, 136. 
Auxiliary verbs, 204. 

B. 

Base, App. II. 

Be, verb, conjugation of, 259. 

But, uses of, 393. 



Ccesura, App. III. 
Caw, could. 

Conjugation of, 279. 

Derived form, 280, 281. 

Uses of, 282. 
Canto, App. III. 
Case, definition of, 96. 

Nominative, 103. 

Objective, 112. 

Possessive, 113. 

Double possessive of nouns, 114. 

Double possessive of pronouns, 
p. 111. 
Causal conjunctions. 

Coordinate, 377. 

Subordinate, 378-380. 

To distinguish between causal 
coordinate and causal subor- 
dinate conjunctions, 383-386. 
Certain. 136. 
Clause, definition of, 65. 

Noun, 410. 

Adjective, 411. 

Ad veil., 412. 



Cognate objects, 209. 
( 'ollective nouns, 78. 
( 'ommon nouns, 77. 
Comparative grammar, 8. 
Comparison. 

Of adjectives, 193. 

Degrees of, 194. 

Positive degree of, 195. 

Comparative degree of, 196. 

Superlative degree of, 197. 

Irregular, 198. 

Defective, 199. 

Inflectional mode <>t'. 197. note. 

Adverbial mode of. 201, cote. 

Descending scale of. 203. 

Implied in absolute sense, 203, 
note. 

Of adverbs. 362-366. 
Complex s< ntence, 71. 
Compound indefinite pronouns, 
138. 

( 'tuii/intnid unit us. 

Plural of. p. 7<i. 

Possessive of, p. 91. 

Word, App. II. 
Compound personal pronouns, 

128. 
Compound sentence, 70. 
Concessive conjunction, 380 : 6 
Conditional conjunction, 380:5. 
( 'onjugation, 245. 

Common form of, 246, 

Progressive form of. -J47. 

old. 252. 

New, 253. 

Of verb, have, 258. 

of verb, be, 259.' 

Of verb. jfcnOW, 1'. 206. 

Conjunctions, •">!. 
Coordinate, 66. 

Classes of, 377. 
Subordinate, 60. 

Classes of. 378. 
Phrase, .".71. 
Correlative, 376. 



INDEX. 



309 



Syntax of, Rule XVII. 

To parse a, 387. 
Conjunctive pronoun, see Relative 

pronoun. 
Construction of sentence, 118. 
Copulative conjunction, •ill: 1. 
Copulative verb, -il, 211. 
Could, see Can. 
Couplet, App. III. 



Dactyl, App. III. 
Z)are (verb), 323. 
Declnnttice sentence, 20. 
Declension, 117. 

Of nouns, 117. note. 

Of personal pronouns, p. 105. 

Of interrogative pronouns, 139. 

Of relative pronouns, 151. 
Defective verbs, 250. 
Definite article, see Adjectives. 
Degrees, see ( 'omparison. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 132. 
Dependent sentence, see Subordi- 
nate sentence. 
Derivative word, App. II. 
De8criptiv< adjective, 175. 
Descriptive grammar, 10. 
Diagramming, 76. • 

Direct object objective, 104. 
Distributive pronouns, 130. 
/>«, ( verb), 328. 
Dmililr jiossessive, see Case. 



A'./. 7,, 135. 

/•.7///r,-. i:;i, note, 377 :2. 

/■'/run n/s Of srn/i /mv, 404. 

Emphatic or ii>t<usivc pronouns. 

180. 
A'«, plural affix, p. 72. 

Feminine atlix, 90, note. 
English grammar, 1 1. 

Province of, L2. 



English language, •">. 
A'.s.s, feminine affix, 91. 
Every, 135. 
Exclamatory sentence, 2-'3. 

F. 

Feminine, see Gender. 
Foreign gender minus, p. GO. 
For< /;/// plurals, App. IV. 
Formation of plural number, 

p. 71. 
Fnturr perfect tense. 
Future tense. 

Formation, p. 203. 

Use, 226. 

Formation, p. 204. 

Use, 229. 

G. 
Gender. 

Definition of, 83. 

Kinds of, 84, 80. 
( find,, -less nouns, see Neuter 

Nouns. 
Gerund. 

Definition of, 236. 

Distinguished, 244. 
Grammar. 

Definition of, G. 

Kinds of, 8-10. 

English, 11. 

Province of, 12. 

Utiles of, 14. 

Rules change, i">. 



Iambus, App. III. 
Tmpt rative. 

Sentence, 22. 

Mode, 221. 
Tmpt rsonal vt rb, 210. 
Indefinite article, Bee adjective. 
Indefinite pronouns. 

Simple. L38. 

Compound, 1G0. 



370 



[NDEX. 



Indefinite relative pronouns, 166. 
Independent elements, 418. 
Indicative mode, 216. 
Indirect obj( <i objective, 105. 
Indirect question, 143. 
Infinitives. 

Definition of, 39, 240. 

Forms of, 241. 

Uses of, 413. 
Inflection, 110. 
Interjection. 

Definition of, 55. 

Phrase, 389. 
Interrogative. 

Sentence, 21. 

Pronouns, 139. 
Intransitive verbs, 207. 
Irregular verbs, 255. 
//, special uses of, p. 109. 
It f, origin, p. 108. 

L. 
Language, 1. 

Spoken, 3. 

Written, 4. 

English, 5. 

Learning of, 13. 

Unit of, 16. 
Like, 372. 
Logical sentence, 20. 

Subject of, 24. 

Predicate of, 25. 

M. 

Mapping out a sentence, see 
Diagramming. 

May. 

Meaning and uses of, 274, 275. 
Meter, App. III. 
Methinks, 324. 
Might, 276, 277. 
Mode. 

Definiti f, '_'l">. 

Indicative, 210. 



Subjunctive, 217. 
imperative, 221. 
Must, 284. 

N. 
Naught, 130. 
Near, 370. 
Need, 325. 
Neither, 134. note. 
Neuter noun, 87. 
Nominative. 

Subject, 97. 

Predicate, us. 
Appositive, 100. 
Vocative, KM. 

Absolute, 1H2. 

inflection of. 1 17. 
None, 136, Note. 
\' hi a. 

Definition of, 29. 

Predicate, 38. 
Common, 77. 
Collective, 78. 
Abstract, 79. 

Proper, 80. 
Neuter, 87. 
Parsing of. 119. 

Clauses, 410. 
Syntax of, 422. 
Number. 
Definition of. u:\. 231. 
Singular, 04. 
Plural. It.",. 

Special uses. 127. 



o. 

Object. 

( »f verb, 34. 

Cognate, 209. 

Secondary, 298. 

Forms of, 4n7. 
Objective. 

Direct object, 104. 
Indirect object, 105. 



INDEX. 



371 



Appositive, 110. 

Adverbial, 111. 
Omission of 

Antecedent, 104. 

Relative pronoun, 105. 
One, 134. 
Other, 134, note. 
Ottiva rima, App. III. 
Ought, 320. 
0«rs, 107. 

P. 

Parsing. 

Nouns, 119. 

Indefinite pronouns, p. 124. 

Interrogative pronouns, 145. 

Relative pronouns, 172. 

Verb, 240. 

Adverb, 357. 

Preposition, 372. 

Conjunction, 387. 
Participle, 47, 239. 

Uses of, 414. 

Form of, 259, II. 

Sometimes omitted in absolute 
constructions, 422, 111., note. 
Parts of speech, 28. 

Nouns, 2!>. 

Verb. 30. 

Pronoun, 42. 

Adjective, 40. 

Adverb, 61. 

Preposition, 53. 

Conjunction, 54. 

Construction used as 
Phrase, 02. 
( llause, 65. 
Passive (voice), 214. 

Formation of, 204. 
Person, 12:;, 230. 

Agreement .,( verb with subject 

in, Rule XII. 
In nouns and pronouns, App. 

lv.. note • '•. 
Prepositional, 100. 
Subject, 107. 



Predicate, 109. 

First, 125. 

Second, 120. 

Third, 127. 
Personal pronoun, 124. 

Agrees with its antecedent, Rule 
XIII. 

Declension of, p. 105. 

Origin of, p. 105. 

Possessive forms of. p. 107. 

Special uses of plural of, p. 109. 

Idiomatic uses of possessive of, 
p. 110. 

Compounds, 128. 
Personification, 82. p. 108. 
J 'It ruse, 02. 

Verb, 32. 

Kinds of, 03, 64. 

Potential verb, 269, 319. 
Plural, see Number. 
Positive degree, see Comparison. 
Possessive. 

With two objects, p. 92. 

Without modified noun, p. 92, 
note. 

Sign sometimes omitted, p. 92, 
note. 

Double, of pronouns, p. Ill, 
note. 

Of nouns. 11.",. 

( trigin of 's, 1 13, note. 

Double, of nouns, 11 1. 
Potential '•< rb phrases, 269. 
Predicatt . 

Definition of, 25. 

Logical, 27. 

Forms of, 406. 

Forms of. modifiers, 409. 
Prefixes, App. II. 
English, App. II. 

Latin, App. II. 

Greek, App. II. 
I'n position. 
Definition of. :>.;. 858. 
Evolution of, 360. 



372 



INDEX. 



Classes of, 363. 

Form of, 364. 

Phrase, 368. 

Adjective, 370. 

Pcarsing a, 373. 
Present, tense. 

Sign of, p. 204. 

Expression of, 223, note. 

Uses of, 224. 
Primitive word, App. II. 
Pronouns. 

Definition of, 42. 

Antecedent of, 120. 

Personal, 124. 

Emphatic, 130. 

Intensive, 130. 

Reflexive, 131. 

Demonstrative, 132. 

Indefinite, 133. 

Alternative, 135. 

Compound indefinite, 138. 

Interrogative, 139. 

Notes on, 142. 

Relative, 146. 

Indefinite Relative, 166. 
Proper nouns, see Nouns. 
Prosody, App. III. 
Purpose. 

Conjunctions of, 380 : 7. 



Quantitive adjectives, 179. 
Quatrain, App. III. 
Questions. 

Direct, p. 125. 

Indirect, 143. 
Quotations. 

As part of speech, p. 43. 

As subject, 405 : 7. 

As object, 407 : 6. 



Redundant (verb), 251. 
Reflexive pronouns, see Pronouns. 



Refrain, App. III. 
Regular ( verb i, 254. 
Hi lative pronouns. 

Definition of, 14<>. 

Antecedent of, 147. 

Restrictive, 148. 

Supplementary, 149. 

List of, 151. 

Declension of, 151. 

Antecedent, omitted, 164. 

Omission of, 165. 

Syntax of, 171. 

To parse a, 1 72. 
Result, conjunction of, 380 : 
Rhyme, App. III. 
Rhythm, App. III. 
Root. App. II. 



Sentence. 

Definition of, 17. 

Declarative, 20. 

Interrogative, 21. 

Imperative, 22. 

Exclamatory, 23. 

Logical, 26. 

Grammatical, 27. 

Subordinate, 57, 67. 

Principal, 66. 

Simple, 69. 

Compound, 70. 

Complex, 71. 

Construction of, 118. 

Analysis of, 399-418. 

Mixed, 403. 

Elements of, 404. • 
Separable prefixes, App. II. 
Several, 136. 
Sextant, App. III. 
Shall, 288, 289. 

Shmdd.-2'M'K 

Since, 401. 
Some, 136. 
Somebody else's, p. 124. 



INDEX. 



373 



Sonnet, App. III. 
Spenserian stanza, App. III. 
Stanza, App. III. 
Stem, App. II. 
Subjeet. 

Definition of, 24. 

Logical, 26. 

Grammatical, 27. 

Forms of, 405. 

Syntax of, 422 : 1. 
Subjunctive (mode). 

Definition of, 217. 

Used in principal sentences, 218. 

Used in noun clauses, 21!>. 

Used in adverbial clauses, 220. 

Gradually falling into disuse, 
220, note. 
Subordinate (mode). 

Conjunctions, 50, 378. 

Sentence, 57. 

Class of, 380. 
Such, 130. 
Suffix, App. II. 
Superlative de/jree, 196. 
Syntax. 

Definition of, 419. 

Rules of. 422. 
Synthesis, 73. 



Tenses. 
Formation of, in indicative mode, 

pp. 203-204. 
Formati f, in subjunctive 

mode, pp. 204-205. 
Formation of, in imperative 

mode, p. 205. 
Definition of, 228. 
Formation of, in passive voice, 

264. 
'/'« trami t> r <■, ,->< . App. 111. 

That, Uses of, loo. 

The, uses of, 102. 
There, 349. 



Transitive, (verb). 

Definition of, 55, 200. 

Governs objective case, Rule V. 
Trochee, App. III. 
Triplet, App. III. 



Verb. 

Definition of, 30. 

I'll rase, 32. 

Transitive. 35, 200. 

Copulative, ::7, 211. 

Auxiliary, 204. 

Notional, 205. 

Impersonal, 210. 

Voices of, 213-214. 

Modes of, 215-221. 

Tenses of, 223-220. 

Person of, 230. 

Number of, 231. 

Verbals, 233-244. 

Principal parts of, 248. 

Defective, 250. 

Redundant, 251. 

Regular, 254. 

Irregular, 255. 

Lis! of old conjugation, 256. 

List df irregular verbs of new 
conjugation, -'>!. 

Potential phrases. 319. 

Parsing a. 331. 

Syntax of. Pules V., XII. 
Pi is, . App. III. 
Voice. 

Definition of, 212. 

Active. 218. 

Passive, 214. 



W. 

We, special uses of, p. 109. 
What. 

Antecedent of relative, 169. 

Not equal i" that which, ltd. 

Uses oi 



374 



INDEX. 



Whether, as interrogative pronoun, 

139. 
Which. 

Interrogative pronoun, 142. 

Relative pronoun, 153. 
WJw. 

Relative pronoun, p. 132. 

Interrogative pronoun, 140. 
Whoso, 1U7. 



Whosoever, 1G8. 
Will, 300. 
Would, 308. 



Y. 

Ye, use of. pp. 105-106. 
Yes or no, ^48. 
You, p. 105. 



